Prehistoric Roads

Introduction
The possessions and variety of the Neolithic and Early Bronze archaeology are present in the South West and most of it has international as well as national segment. Character and quality are determined by survival gap and research histories and reflect actual variation in prehistoric activity nature. Unusual terrains of south west peninsula and the Wessex chalk divide are the main topographies. Media of exchange and different modes are the corresponding resources of these couple of main areas. Dartmoor and Bodmin Moor has relict prehistoric landscapes where outstanding survival of stone monuments is ensured. Artefactual material and uneven range of prehistoric timber trackways have been found in the Somerset Levels within the peats. Although human bone assemblages and rich faunal have been found from the chalk bedrocks and alkaline limestone of Dorset, Wilshire, northern Somerset and Gloucestershire Cotswolds, the intensive study of Early Bronze Age archaeology and Neolithic have occurred. In 1986 The UNESCO World Heritage list was the Stonehenge inscription and landscapes of Avebury. The extensive exploration has led in the dominating synthetic of Wessex and Bronze Age and British Neolithic’s interpretive accounts. (for example, Barrett 1994b; J Thomas 1999).
Sites surviving upstanding on the higher moors and downloads are dominating the image of the well known archaeological resource. The strength of occupation in vales and lower ground is testified by the main concentrations of aerial reconnaissance, lithic material, extensive geophysical survey and relief work shown in the end few areas of the inactive regions.

4.2 Chronologies
4.2.1 The Mesolithic–Neolithic
transition
Sweet Track found in Somerset Levels are one of the most date secured structures in Early Neolithic. The construction dates of Sweet Track (3807/3806 BC) and Post track (3838 BC) have made it clear that the Neolithic artefacts were present at the start of the 4th millennium BC and to some extent the woodland surrounding was managed, gazed, cleared and cultivated (Coles and Coles 1986; Caseldine 1984a). One of the region’s best deposits of Late Mesolithic are also present in the upper fill of the Fir Tree Field shaft on Cranborne Chase. Dated back to the early 4th or 5th millennium and bedded above the rod microliths’ group was a fireplace integrated with Neolithic bowl pottery, domestic cattle bone and a ground flint axehead, which gave rise to radiocarbon dates of 3960–3710 cal BC (OxA-8009), 4050–3800 cal BC (OxA-8010) and 4250–3960 cal BC (OxA-7981, Allen and Green 1998). The first determination, made on short life material will be the nearest age to deposit while the other two, a long lived specie on charcoal and on a diasarticulated animal bone, were termini post quos.

Easy interpretation of the sequence is a fair and rapid transition from one tradition to another. Other than places in Britain, the dates are associated with a reliable source to Mesolithic artefacts that extent to the start of 4th millennium BC (Spikins 2002) as well as certain Neolithic monuments which includes barrows and cairns that were built from c.3800 BC on the fact of radiocarbon measurements on the limited human remains (such as listed by Richards and Hedges 1999, and those added from latest monuments, Bayliss and Whittle 2007).

According to Richards 2004, at this time, dietary change has been rushed, though the results’ interpretation of the analysis of stable isotope remains controversial (Hedges 2004; Lidén et al. 2004; Milner et al. 2004). Within two generations, there is a possibility of the adopting the Neolithic lifeways with intensions of the influential power of new identities, beliefs and practices (Richards 2004; J Thomas 2003).

A process of Neolithic ‘infill’ was developed by major monument complexes in parts of Wessex chalklands which includes areas like Dorchester, Avebury Stonehenge and Cranborne Chase (Whittle 1990; Richards 1990, 263; Barrett et al. 1991, 29; RJC Smith et al. 1997); maybe somewhere near the 4th-5th millennium BC line if the date of 4050-3640 cal BC are reliably taken from Coneybury Anomaly (OxA-1402, Richards 1990). Dense Later Mesolithics are present on the clay-with-flints of Cranborne Chase and are absent from the chalk from which several Early Neolithic monuments were constructed (Barrett et al. 1991, 29–31). In other examples, several practices and significance of places may have crossed the transition to Neolithic. The order at Gloucestershire, Hazleton North starting with a Late Mesolithic flint scatter, is reflected in the repetitive return by the similar social group and sense of place to this locale. A late Mesolithic presence is revealed in the Somerset surface collection surrounding the Devil’s Bed and Bolster long barrow (Lewis 2005) but the nature of relationship is uncertain between construction of monuments and these activities.

Transport

Transporting stone axes and ceramics to long distances is a well known activity in this area. It is said by through the identification of Cornish Heath of charred fragments which are now native in only in the Britain mainland at Hambledon Hill on the Lizard peninsula that some of south-western stone axeheads and gabbroic pottery buried at the place had been directly sent there. The proof is absent for land based trackways with acclaimed long distance routes in the initial prehistoric date i.e. Wilshire Ridgeway which now is known to be Medieval or Roman origin (Fowler 2000). There has been a rise in the probability that people who bought cattle to the causewayed enclosures for slaughtering purposes could have served them as packed animals.
During the 4th millennium BC, a famous means of communication was the route along the long rivers. These routes connected the monument complexes and monuments as shown by the avenue positioning and entrance of enclosures related to the Avon at Durrington Walls and Stonehenge (Parker Pearson et el. 2006). Location of Wessex in between the Irish Seas and the channel alongside rivers that provide possible links not only between the two but also to North Sea via Thames which will make it easy to travel to a huge number of long distance routes. The region is enjoying an advantageous position by going into various communication networks that are in relation to the exchange of low bulk but high quality materials. Phase 3 bluestone settings at Stonehenge provide an example of high bulk materials movement (Cleal et al. 1995). They cannot be derived from the nearby deposits of the glaciers and it seems that the south west Wales brought these bluestones (Scourse 1997), possibly through the Bristol Avon and Bristol channel. Keeping in mind the time period, boats must have been present here however none have been found.
Wetland found in a particular region is a good evidence of non-riverine with in the land transport. Timber track ways were known for Somerset Levels which joins islands with in the fens (Somerset HER; Coles and Coles, 1986). In early fourth millennium BC, Sweet Track and Post Track were early forms of rail and post construction. Trackways like corduroy and hurdle construction were seen in early Bronze Age. (Coles and Coles 1986; Somerset HER)

Sweet Track is a kind of causeway in Somerset Levels which is in England. It’s construction was in 3806 BC and is also clamed as the oldest road of the world. It was ones considered to be the oldest in Northern Europe, but in 2009 trackways were discovered in Belmarsh Prison which was almost 6000 year old. It is now thought that Sweet Track was constructed largely in early structures.

Track starched across Westhay, which was once an island, and Shapwick which is a high ground. This distance is approximately 6600 ft or 2000 meters. Different artifacts were found in this region which includes jadeitie axe head.

These constructions were of wooden poles. These poles were forced into the soil which supported the walkway. The walkway consisted for planks made form oak. Due to the raise in water level they were used only for 10 year. Most of them have been left were they were originally. To maintain the condition of the wood different measures are taken including water pumping. Few for the track are preserved at British Museum.

A track was built in early fourth millennium BC which connected Westhay and Shapwick which was close to River Brue. The site has been marks of ancient lake dwellings. These lake dwellings are similar to once that were found in iron age, Glastonbury Lake Village which is situated near Godney. [2]

Similar track were discovery in the surrounding which have now been uncovered. These tracks were used to connect different settlements situated on peat bog. These settlement includes Abbotts Way, Westhay, Nidons and Honeygore trackways.[3] Sites similar to Meare Pool, provide us with an evidence that the main purpose that these structure served was to help in making traveling easy. Through investigating Meare Pool it can to our knowledge that it was constructed by encroachment of raised pet bogs specifically during the period of Subatlantic climate. And by sampling core helped us indicate that it was filled with detritus mud which was at least 2 meters deep. [4][5]

Two of the Meare Lake Villages which lies in Meare Pool seem to be originated from collection of different structures which erected on the top of dried peat which includes windbreaks, animal folds and tents. Later clay was used to provide raised stands for the movement, occupation and industry. In few areas hearths was built with the help of clay and stones.

Builders:

People who constructed these trackway were Neolithic farmers. Around 3900B.C they have already had colonized their area and it is also suggested that by the time they have started the construction they were well settled and organized. [23] Before human started penetrating the upper lands which was heavily surrounded by wood, only the locals stated clearing these forest for their living and for the space for cultivation. [24] In the time of winter the areas which ever flooded provided the inhabitant with wildfowl and fish. While in summer when the land dries the community who farms uses these grassland for the purpose of grazing sheep and cattle. Summer was rich of wood, reed, and had relatively more bird and wild animals, seeds and fruits. [25] There was a need for reaching other islands in the wetlands where they could find sufficient area to perform different activities like stocking timber and building trackway, most importantly when water is at its lowest level in the end of dry period. [23] The activities which are to be performed for the construction indicates that they were advanced in the skills of woodworking and also suggest that there were some differentiation about the occupation of the workers. [23] it also seem link they have been maintaining the surrounding land for 120 year al least. [23]

Construction:

The track was build in 3806 B.C and was only made of planks made form oak and was supported with the help of crossed pegs of oak, lime and ash. [27] The size of the plank was 40cm wide, 5cm thick and 3meters long. The trees which were cut down to make planks had at least age of 400 years and with a diameter of 1 meter. They were cut, split and felled only with the help of stoned axes, mallets and wooden wedges. [28] With the help of the straightness and length it seems like that were from woodland of coppiced. [29] Longitudinal log rail was up to 7.6 cm in diameter, 6.1m long and was made up of alder and hazel. [27][30] After that, notches were cut down into planks so that they could fit the pegs. Planks were placed in X shapes to form a walkway. [31] At some places second rail was used on top of the previous one to increase the level well above the remaining walkway. [32] Small trees came into use at southern end. Planks were spilt across to utilize its full diameter. Other tree fragments were also found which includes willow, dogwood, poplar, apple, birch and ivy. [1]

The setting of the wetlands indicates that trunks must have come prefabricated and was assembled on the construction site. [27] Presence of chopped branches and wood chips indicates us that some trimming would have been performed locally. [1] About 200,000 kg of timber is used to build a track and according to Coles 10 men could assemble in one day once the required material is on site. [34]

For only 10 year Sweet Track was used because of the rise of water level they may have been engulfed. The objects which were found along the side of the track suggest that the track were used on daily bases by the farmers of the community. Since the time of discovery, it have been seen that different parts of Sweet Track were also build on the routes of earlier track. Post Track was constructed about thirty year before which are about 3838 B.C.
Conservation:
Much of the track is still intact with no major changes in its initial location. It is now situated within the Shapwick Health biological Site of Special Scientific Interest and the National Nature Reserve.38 A huge amount of the track’s length is now being conserved after the successful purchase of the land by National Heritage Memorial Fund. They installed a system which would make the pumping of water and the distribution process much easier, in about a 500 meter land. 39 This process of preserving the wetlands so as to keep a high water table and saturate the land has become a rare practice.41 A piece of land about 500 meters long is owned by the Nature Conservancy Council which is enclosed by a clay bank which helps to prevent drainage into the lower peat fields that surround the land. The water levels are rechecked every now and then.41 The usefulness of this method and the threat to the land can be seen by comparing it to Abbot’s way which is located nearby and has not been treated by this method. Back in 1996, this land was completely deprived on water and was left barren. 42 The Nature Conservancy Council, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs as well as the Somerset Levels Project are the ones responsible for keeping a check on the level of water in the Shapwick Health Nature Reserve.
Even though, the wood recovered from these pieces of land had become quite soft and of very poor quality, the pieces that were still of better condition were taken out and reserved for analysis later on. 42 This wood could be conserved by a process which involved keeping the wood in tanks which were heated and contained water soluble wax called polyethylene glycol. The water in the wood evaporated slowly and was replaced by wax. This process lasted for approximately 9 months. Through this procedure, the wax cooled down and hardened and the wood was ready to be used.
Early Bronze Age contexts and Developments:
The Early Bronze age in the south west involved traditions like those of megalithic tomb construction. Even though their chronology is not that well recognized and interpreted by people, Ashbee (1982) has sided with the Mesolithic origin which usually belong to the Entrance Graves in the Isles of Scilly and West Cornwall which can also be traced back to the Early Bronze Age. (O’Neil 1952).
Amongst the numerous monuments, about 80 of them are recorded on Scilly, as compared to just nine in the West Penwith. In other parts, the region is populated with dense areas and clusters of round barrows and cairns, which stand there as monuments in the upland areas. The most obvious category of the prehistoric monuments are the 6000 historic monuments in Wessex (Grinsell, 1958), 745 in Somerset (Grinsell, 1969), and about 3500 in Cornwall.
The distribution there is mostly unequal. It may lie in isolation or in big centimeters. Most of the concentrations lie on Mendip around the Priddy Circles, which stretch over 16km and have an already built ceremonial center at the Stonehenge and Avebury. Although the distribution of these monuments is being changed an altered to quite an extent now.
The excavations that took place in these areas have brought up evidence of Cornish barrows which have quite a unique history attached. Also human remains were found which proved to be a small part of the tradition of the barrow. The barrow excavations are still going on and being credited with more and more discoveries like the Crig-a-Mennis (Christie 1960), Davidstow Moor (Christie 1988), Tregulland (Ashbee 1955–1956; 1958), Watch Hill (Miles 1975a), Caerloggas (Miles 1975a), Gaverigan (Nowakowski 1995; 1998; Highgate (Nowakowski 1998), Trenance (Miles 1975a), Chysauster (G Smith 1996) and Stannon (Harris et al. 1984). This list of excavations and discoveries show the various monuments present which range in size and structure and are a unique discovery credited to the barrow excavations.

A diverse and unique mixture of ceremonial practices was discovered with the excavations of the groups residing in the Early Bronze Age barrows. Some of these were Davidstow Moor campaign that took place in the 1940s (Christie, 1988), Colliford (Griffith, 1984) and Stannon. Research has shown that the different sites and landscapes had their own separate roles and rituals that they performed and they were distinct from each other. (Owoc 2001, Nowakowski)
This brings forward the threat of disregarding barrows completely and considering them as mere physical depository remains of the humans. The longevity and complex nature of the barrows and cairns was one of their greatest features and they are credited with the remodeling and restructuring of ancient monuments after many years.
In the first mid of the 20th century there had been number of major burial grounds or digging barrow group which had same complex structures clearly defined in the rounded barrows on the chalk, for example, Crichel Down and Launceston Down (Piggott and Piggott 1944) and after the war taking strong actions in cultivating and military activity such as Shrewton (Green and Rollo-Smith 1984),Amesbury(Ashbee 1985) and Snail Down(N Thomas 2005). Some barrows had simple narrow excavation while others appeared as large mounts such as (Amesbury 71) and (West Overton 6b) with appearance of ring cairns,circles and mound platforms. In the Bronze Age there were wide range of barrow formats with skillfull work including bell,saucer and pond varieties having particular gender associations while before this Age the earlier barrows were small in size but provided some creative linear cemeteries which were used till the 2nd millennium BC,
Circular hilltop enclosures known in Cornwall in the west in Early Bronze Age showed incircle ring cairns and monuments for example at (Bartinney and Caer Ban), menhirs standing single paired and in rows stones were the feature of Cornwall and Isles of Scilly. But in Middle and Late Bronze Age much of its interior were removed in the development.Some were discovered by Antiquarians in the 19th century where deposits of bone chips and ashes were found. At Try Gulval,which shows that it has a long history because of its large menhir attached with stoned lined many deposits of animal and human bone, with trevisker pottery of fragments (Russel and Pool 1964).
Mesolithic material is contained in Neolithic and Early Bronze Age lithics which have 45% of spread out on Dartmoor. However, this may lead to periodic reoccupation on the places where there might be promising chances of recovery. Hiatus is revealed between Mesolithic and ensuing Neolithic and Early Bronze Age gatherings by the lithics occurred from the scatter beneath digging at Batworthy Corner.

North Downs
There have been areas like Downs and most regions in prehistoric times which were covered with thick, intense and deciduous woodland. Regions were mostly covered with woods and it is seen that the human activities initially in the early period of time was the area were granted by the primitive megaliths on the scarp in western Kent. However, there have been areas which were surrounded by the river valleys as parts of Roman and showed habitations. The areas which were exposed at the the upper Downs showed some middle ages and colonization as slow pace and this is considered to be a historic arrangement model of parishes. It is surrounded by the boundaried which takes some area of downland, scarpfoot and chartland. This leaded to a framework of the current network of settlements which were explored in the area.
Downs was seen as an extensive regime filled with stocks and the roads were made for driving purpose and they were developed in order to make feasibility for moving animals to the other summer territory. There were some other tracks as well like North Downs Way and this path was an old path surrounded across the ridge and Pilgrim’s Way and lead to the Canterbury.
There are small villages in North Downs especially in the Kent part and is a rural area with rustic background and has some big settlements like Guildford, Chatham and Dover.
There are some urban developments as well especially in the area where Downs bring about London towards Croydon and Sutton. Moreover, in those urban areas there is a spread of speciesrich grassland valleys.
There are diagonal lined tracks and lanes down a bit and they link the Downs with south Wealden Greensand, the tracks are surrounded by trees and the lanes are contracted and constricted with caricature and are steep sided.

Projection with yew and wayfaring tree and white beam it is observed that the views are restricted and wide-ranging and limited to view from the top.

BOUNDARIES AND EDGES
Boundaries and edges of the countryside and local ecologies should be given attention and significance. It is observed that importance is given to the natural environment in order to retain the natural part of the countryside so, the boundaries and edges are taken into notice and have given especial and vital attention to the natural places as stated by Richard Bradley (2000).

A study conducted in 2003 by Stocker and Everson of Titham valley in Lincolnshire, England, shows that the natural places have long value and life in wetlands and are significant. The boundary of Lindsey an independent state was River Witham in the middle ages. Medieval monasteries were situated at the tactical points along the valley according to a research. Access was provided by the causeways across the river and its widespread riparian wetlands. The period of causeways was old enough in the Middle Ages and there were excavations at Fiskerton of one of them. Precursor of Iron Age and Roman date was shown as mentioned by (Field & Parker Pearson 2003). Votive depositions also occurred at causeways areas particularly on the terminals of the cause ways.

In response to this votive depositions were seen in barrow cemeteries of surrounding area of Bronze Age. However, it has been argued by Stocker and Everson that in the Titham valley there are precise locales and they are supposed as places where boundary could be crossed by one. The boundary can be crossed for a period in surplus of the two millennia in spite of having a wetland landscape as of developing nature. Moreover, the Bronze Age insights lead to some sort of middle Ages practices and values.
MARGINALITY AND LIMINALITY

The sixth point is of getting a knowhow of differentiating between peculiarity and liminality. When wetlands go across that idea is known as liminality. This concept of liminality is considered to be fluid concept disreputably. More precisely, this concept is to be taken as and linked to the means of passageway as projected by Van Gennep( 1908). This basically describes the formal rituals and practices which are accompanied by one transition and tell about one specific place into another. Its main focus is on the rites which are related to the birth, adulthood, marriage and death. The real or symbolic doorsteps are part of these rituals and need to cross representing the luminal zones. The equation of liminality with marginality is often mistaken because the economic and ritual activities are not on the level of landscape and are mutually exclusive. Moreover, few liminal zones were originated in marginal landscapes and this can be explained by an example that threshold went through the newlyweds in the advanced world and are positioned in settlements or in the economic areas. More significantly, it is very important to know and be precise when recognizing the places which are liminal.

Lake dwellings in East Yorkshire are an example of how liminality is not connected to marginality. Giving a second look to the ‘Sfest Furze’ lake dwellings showed that it was a type of a track way going through wetlands in the Bail and Low mere complex and the surroundings were giving an effect like early Bronze Age. The wide mires serve as a boundry between the dead and alive on the east we burial mounds and on the west there are human settlements. At West Furze, a track way crosses these wetlands including a doorway at the east of the short track which symbolizes the space and another symbol are the number of human skills found near the boundary.
(Van de Noort 1995; see also Fletcher & Van de Noort this volume)

We should not undermine the wetland landscapes as taskscapes are, because the significance of wetlands determines how they are perceived. Ingold describes “takscapes” as the tasks undertaken at the particular landscapes, through which landscapes are perceived. What insider’s think about wetland is that it has innumerable resources from fish to fuel and from hay lands to reeds. Raised bogs also come in handy we can use them for grazing, preserving butter and for curing of leather too.


We should not undermine the wetland landscapes as taskscapes are, because the significance of wetlands determines how they are perceived. Ingold describes “takscapes” as the tasks undertaken at the particular landscapes, through which landscapes are perceived. What insider’s think about wetland is that it has innumerable resources from fish to fuel and from hay lands to reeds. Raised bogs also come in handy we can use them for grazing, preserving butter and for curing of leather too.