2.1
CULTURE AND ITS ASPECTS
2.1.1
Introduction
Value
systems, attitudes, customs, religious beliefs and life style are considered as
symbols of a certain society and part of its culture as well. The culture also
includes the way people behave in various situations. Sharing thoughts and
opinions with one another is made possible and easy through cultures. An
important factor to be considered in studying the expansion of money is the
power of social class. This factor is related to education level, wealth level
and occupation (Blackwell et al., 2001). There are a number of different
factors which can greatly influence people’s attitude. Furthermore, there are
certain sub divisions that may exist within a culture who have their own set of
values. But their overall values and moral code would be the same as other
persons within that culture (Kotler et al., 2005).
It
should be noted that the level of knowledge, information and smartness, changes
as people move between regions. Because of this, people’s mindset can be
greatly different between regions. Therefore, we can assume that people’s
learning behaviour and ability to learn certain things will be different. We
can also justify that people’s decision power will differ, which in turn will
influence their purchase decisions too.
Within
every society, there are smaller groups of individuals who have similar set of
beliefs and morals. They also behave in like ways and have comparable life
experiences. Market researches further divide these groups into smaller
sections and determine their needs in order to serve them and attract their
attention in various ways (Kotler et al., 2001). Every society has its own
unique class structure, distributions and percentages that make it stand out.
Considering the income factor, societies can be divided into three major
categories: upper, middle and poor class. Each class has its own unique set of
values, beliefs and interests.
Before
launching a product or a service, it is of vital importance that the marketer
has extensive information about the culture within which he or she is working.
In the next section, culture and different aspects of culture are examined
thoroughly.
Definition of Culture
The term “culture” is rooted in the word
“cultivation” which implies growth of a person through understanding or
knowledge. Being cultured also implies a person being knowledgeable about the
arts or being polished. The Encyclopaedia of Philosophy defines culture as the
totality of human aspects i.e. religious, substance, intellectual and life
style (Paul Edwards, 1967).
According
to the Webster’s New International Dictionary, culture is described as the
system of identifiable beliefs, customs and achievements which lay down the
foundation of a faction. The group may be religious, racial or social (William
Alan, 2009). So, culture is more than a set of related values and requirements
of a certain group of people. Rather, a complete system of life of a certain
society can be called a culture. Simply put, a system or structure of personal
achievements and traditions can define the term ‘culture’ as well. This is why
marketers should have full information about the region where they will launch
their product. Because when they don’t have the right information, they may end
up facing long term negative consequences. Culture is more than just a
compilation of a set of values. It is a system of beliefs and values held by a
group of people. In a cultural system, the qualitative relationships present
within the whole system are more important than the individual quantitative relationships
present between various facets of culture.
Value guided
systems are similar to culture. A cultural man’s need for rationality, need for
significant emotional experience, a rich imagination and deep faith may be
labeled as values Ervin Laszlo, 1972).
This means that a culture is a mix of different aspects and a number of
different levels of society are influenced because on culture. Since values are very important part of
culture, they bring organization to the system as a whole. Overall, the basis
of any cultural system and the main organizing factor of a culture are related
to established values. The cultural system and its growth depend on the
relationship present between numerous interrelated factors that cannot be torn
apart. These factors go hand in hand, working in a sequence that cannot be
broken. Culture is a blend of many elements. Among these elements, values hold
the primary importance. The various entities lose their identity and the
complex whole of culture takes birth (William Alan, 2009). The culture which is created by embedding
value system and customs gives birth to the concept of society. In the
framework of society, all the individual belief and values hold their
respective importance. Because of this, several significant factors wind up
becoming very important in a society. Anyone who wants to have a deep,
insightful perception of culture needs to identify and study the components
before examining culture completely. All good marketers consider this a
necessary step before they start developing their marketing strategy.
2.2.2
Discipline of culture
Culture is a complex whole that encompasses different components that cannot be interpreted
and understood in seclusion. All of them are intertwined together like a chain
and can only be investigated in association with one another. Every component
constitutes to the understanding of rest of the components of culture.
According to Michael Talbot (1991), whenever there is cause and effect
relationship between certain factors, these factors caanot be studied
separately. Rational design to review culture suggests to specify all the
components constituting the culture
precisely and then review them to fathom the idea of culture; a comprehensive
numeric model and connections must be
contrived in order to review all these components to make a meaningful picture
of the whole conception. Following the precedents; we can induct that cultural
and societal dynamism are two sides of the same coin that are inseparable from
each other, one affects the other. It is impossible to summarize the idea of
society in a single equation or a mathematical derivation it is lot more
enigmatic (Amos Rapoport, 1969). It is crucial to
analyse all the related aspects while conducting the business in any society. So, wants of the society cannot be predicted as derivatives
of the whole system simply but the businesses must take into account all the
phases that exist in culture.
The
point of interdependency among the components of culture was further advocated
by Hamedreza and Fatemeh (2011) who attempted to distil the idea of culture
given by Eliot and also mention in their journal, according to them: culture
can be reviewed in perspective of a single person, a gathering or community or
the entire system. When you are talking about culture you cannot use the
assumption of “ceteris paribus” i.e. other things remaining the same; all
components constitute towards the same idea so none of them has any meaning in
seclusion to others and only combination of these components constitutes to a
meaningful whole. In a nut shell, all cultures proliferate on their own as per
their capacity to evolve and mature.
When we think of culture, it is a chain of
connections in which a single person learned his/her culture from his/her respective
community, every person exchanges values in the society where he/she lives and
the culture of each community is derived from the culture of whole system to
which that community belongs. So, because of its significance, at first we need
to comprehend the word “culture” around which the whole system revolves. It is
difficult to comprehend the choices of people. All the choices of people rest
on the premise of their cultural values to which they belong.
There are some primary factors that bring
deep routed changes in the entire society and there are few other secondary
factors that have minor impact on the society and are not as forceful as
primary ones. So, businesses should conduct in depth research to find out the
major factors out of so many, which are primary determinants of the culture and
can alter the whole society. In this way marketing implications of culture are
of core importance to the businesses as they will be in a better position to
create influential commercials and design better advertising campaigns of their
products and services to increase the clientele eventually. This perspective
was coined by a physicist, David Bohm (1957) who has many academic writings in
form of books and papers in the field of quantum physics and systems theory.
Moreover;
only the major factors of culture that manipulates the culture must be
considered and rest of them regardless of their self-significance must be
bypassed. Similarly, in the field of advertising and sales only relevant major
primary factors that can affect in any way possible must be searched for when
studying the consumer behaviour or choices in marketing research. The impact of
supplementary relations could be nullified as they are not significant and do
not create any measurable impact in certain situations (David Bohm, 1957).
A sculpt of culture;
Source: Adapted from Trompenaars and
Hampden (2000), p. 22
2.2.3
Characteristic of culture
Trompenaar and Hampden (2000) have classified
culture in following three classes:
o
Culture of a nation or a region
o
Corporate or culture of an
organization or company
o
Occupational or Professional
Culture like doctors, accountants and engineers etc.
It is important to categorize different culture because
institutional culture is as important as national culture.
The very need of organization culture is at the time of
launching new products to new regions and culture. In such case organization
has to set up new branches and to hire new staff according to the need and to
make sure culture of the organization in compliance to culture of that specific
region. Thus it is essential to focus on national and corporate culture that
can affect management and style of executives of the organization that
ultimately affect penetration of product future in that region.
Hofstede (1997, p.182) has described the fundamental of
organization culture as “shared perception of daily practices” as compared to
“a system of shared values and beliefs”. This concept is important for general
practices of an organization and its workers as described by many writers like
Hellriegel and Slocum (1993) and Schein (1999). Nation culture is described in
detail in the last paragraph. However, organizational culture cannot be ignored
as Trompenaars and Hampden (2000) defines organizational culture as “the
approach which helps member of the organization to find out problems and their
particular solutions”, which is in support of the before mentioned concepts.
The theory of Hofstede (1997) defines organizational culture
in two levels. It explains culture according to the requirements of each level
of the organization. The “onion diagram” of Hofsetede theory used to explain
the differences between national and organizational culture and also explain
the difference according to different situations and level of the organization.
These practices or norms can be identified from the early
stage of a person life when he used to live in a family, spend time in school
and in his surroundings (Hofstede, 1997). The difference in culture can be
found in the under mentioned diagram.
The Nature of Cultural Difference;
Source:
Hofstede (1997), p. 182
The before mentioned diagram is showing level of profession
in the centre of the nation and company or organization. This also enables to
acquire values and norms of culture at the organization and nation level
(Hofstede, 1997).
In the theory of Hofstede, the conventions related to norms,
values or practices are attributed as basic forms of the organization culture.
The “onion diagram” of Hofstede theory describes this phenomenon in clear
perspective. Thus, it can be concluded from the practical implementation of
Hofstede Onion diagram that practices prevailing in the organization culture
and culture of the nations can be strengthened. However, it is necessary to reassess
the above mentioned essentials as it makes it necessary at the organization
level when to hire new individuals who are associated with new cultures and
standard practices to their general behaviour.
2.2.4
Managing style and culture
It is found that some organization are giving preference to
merge with other organization of same interest existed in new culture or
regions instead of establishing new set up in the new culture. Thus there lies
an important consideration with the overall behaviour and perception of the
management of the organization at the time of merger (Weber et al., 1996). If
there is difference in management practices of the executives of the
organization, it leads to the failure of merger (Shreader and Self, 2003). Some
writers consider management style as the most important factor in case of
merger (Schein, 1999) and the other school of thought take it as an element
that can affect the culture of an organization or company (Evans, 2003).
Hofstede research and description on management style and
practices and their values among nations is reinforced by the research of
Weber. They both are at the opinion that
executives are regarded as “champions of national culture” and any differences
in management style are according to the need of nation culture (Weber et al.,
1996). However, this concept goes against to the concept of Schein (1999)
regarding style of management at the time of merger. The management style of
partner firms should be in accordance to member’s history and experience (Schein,
1999).
The given theories of Mullins (1993) and Trompenaars and
Hampden (2000) are in agreement that management practices and culture of the
organization should be decided according to the culture and norms of the
nation. But Schein (1999) highlights the fact that organization culture has
same influence on an individual as the culture of the nation, Laurent’s
research is in agreement of this concept. This concept is derived from the
study of multi-cultural values adopted by various managers of the European
countries (Mead, 1998).
The author wants to
describe the concept how culture of the organization can be supported by the
national culture. As a consequence of this, the discrepancy between the reports
of the national culture dimensions shows us that how it can be organized and
need of any help is already shown detailed above.
2.2.5
National extent of culture
The literature review
presents a variety of theories explaining several aspects of culture. The core
characteristics and divisions of culture are explained by 10 fundamental
characteristics identified by Harris and Moran (2000). These characteristics
include language and communication, dress and appearance, mental process and
learning, relationships, food and feeding habits, habits and work practices,
values and norms, beliefs and attitudes, time and time consciousness and sense
of self and space. It is essential for any organization to thoroughly consider
these factors and conduct a deep research on them too before stepping in to the
market. Some characteristics, like relationship with people, time or nature,
have been highlighted and discussed in the studies by Trompenaar (2000),
Kluckholn and Strodbeck (1961) and Adler (2002). Kluckholn and Strodbeck (1961)
described the importance and significance of human nature while Hall (1990)
highlighted language as an integral part of culture. Moreover, space was also
assessed by Hall (1990) and Adler (2002). The following paragraphs will now
consider some significant assumption linked with the perspective of
management.
2.2.6
Hofstede’s extent of culture
The theory of culture
put forward by Geert Hofstede is the most famous and abundantly quoted theory.
This actually covers the influence of national culture on the workplace values.
The study was based on 116,000 IMB of people present in fifty dissimilar
countries. The study was carried out in the period of 70s. The countries under
the study were placed in four different dimensions of culture. These four
dimensions comprise of: individualism vs. collectivism, masculinity vs.
femininity, uncertainty avoidance and power distance. The study used scores
ranging from 0 to 112 (Hofstede, 2001).
The first dimension
mentioned by Hofstede’s theory is power distance which is linked to the
relations existing between subordinate or employees and managers or employees.
This indicates the degree of acceptance of unequal power distribution by those
members of an institution or organization who are less powerful in this
respect. This also defines the extent to which this characteristic has
penetrated in to the company’s culture and the efforts made by the active
member to eliminate or reduce such practice. Countries where the boss is the
sole king and the subordinates are dependent upon his decision have a higher
value of PDI (Power Distance Index) (Verluyten, 2000). On the other hand, a low
value of PDI is an indicative of the fact that the countries have a systematic
and practical group of managers who are not autocratic or paternalistic
(Hofstede, 1997). Instead, they consider it important to consult their
subordinates and value their point of views before finalizing any decision
(Mead, 1998). Countries with lower PDI values have a flexible management
structure free form any existential justifications (Mead, 1998) and do not
require any powerful leaders. It is a true fact that most of the subordinates
dislike close supervision by their superiors as they disagree with most of
their views.
The first dimension
mentioned by Hofstede’s theory is power distance which is linked to the
relations existing between subordinate or employees and managers or employees.
This indicates the degree of acceptance of unequal power distribution by those
members of an institution or organization who are less powerful in this
respect. This also defines the extent to which this characteristic has
penetrated in to the company’s culture and the efforts made by the active
member to eliminate or reduce such practice. Countries where the boss is the
sole king and the subordinates are dependent upon his decision have a higher
value of PDI (Power Distance Index) (Verluyten, 2000). On the other hand, a low
value of PDI is an indicative of the fact that the countries have a systematic
and practical group of managers who are not autocratic or paternalistic (Hofstede,
1997). Instead, they consider it important to consult their subordinates and
value their point of views before finalizing any decision (Mead, 1998).
Countries with lower PDI values have a flexible management structure free form
any existential justifications (Mead, 1998) and do not require any powerful
leaders. It is a true fact that most of the subordinates dislike close
supervision by their superiors as they disagree with most of their views.
Countries
like Netherlands (PDI 38)
and USA
(PDI 40) (Mead, 1998) had lower PDI as stated by him where such circumstances
are rare. Cultures are given importance in the country where power distance is
lower and that is why people get opportunities to develop their career
depending upon the caste and class they belong to in high power distance
countries (Hellriegel and Slocum, 1993).
The
second dimension differentiated by Hofstede (2001) is Individualism. Discussion has been done on such topics of
individualism and communism in the chapter regarding advertising with
traditional features. In this lesson individual relationship and groups are
portrayed (Mead, 1998). Those countries are known as individualist where
emphasis is given to the rights and accomplishments, and people show eagerness
towards competition. In individualism, decisions made by individuals are
considered important in the groups and working individually is preferred and
imaginative. High individualism practising countries consider the point that
every individual has his own thoughts and views which do not always match with
the majority thinking. Managers in this system do not show life-time
dedications to the company although they are sincere in their emotional contact
with the company; mostly they prefer variety instead of commodity (Mead, 1998).
Individualism is not favoured by Hofstede, who generally prefer collectivism.
Groups possess distinct cultural values which are very sacred to them and they
provide maximum protection to these values (Hofstede, 1997). In some situations
they prefer members within the group in the multicultural society; however
every person is valued equally in the societies following individualism
(Hofstede, 1997).
Individualism
was also compared by Hofstede with particularism and universalism called by
sociologists (Hofstede, 1997), and according to Trompenaars (2000) who
considered individualism as the most elementary scope of the culture. Such
circumstances take place where special preference is given to an employee over
other or same with customer which is a common practice in business and
sometimes ones’ friend is given more respect than others’. This situation is
not considered ethical in universalism (Hofstede, 1997).
A man
prefers sincerity of his friend or colleague, as described by the collectivist
cultures rather than the other social gatherings like business etc. In
collectivist societies before giving a task to anyone, relationship is enhanced
between one another while in individualist society personal relations are not
considered important before assigning a task to someone. In Universalism,
managers’ decisions or style of doing work are very much affected by its
dimension, especially related to foreign businesses (Trompenaars and Wooliams,
2003).
Third
dimension of the Hofstede’s model defined a term Uncertainty avoidance which
means “how much the people of a particular culture feel endangered by an
uncertain situation” (Hofstede, 1997, p.113). Future misconceptions or anxiety
in this regard are acceptable to certain level and clearly observed in their
culture (Verluyten, 2000). Certain strategies are defined for people to develop
a level of certainty in culture for the future, who are living in the maximum
height of uncertainty avoidance. People in such situations take serious steps
toward security options like insurance, employment stability, secure income and
many other social benefits.
It is
very essential to implement certain formal and informal rules and policies to
maintain discipline and safeguard employers’ and workers’ rights and
performance (Mead, 1998; Hofstede, 1997). According to Hofstede (1997), who
suggested that emotionally it is important to make certain rules and
regulations, but sometimes ineffective rules are also greeted to maintain
people’s emotional requirements in a formal form of structure that can be
avoided, like in France.
Rules and regulations are very essential to solve the number of issues, some
rules are solved easily without rules and everyone should follow the presently
active rules (Hofstede, 1997). Society in which high levels of uncertainty
avoidance in cultures, managers are convinced to give proper commands and
secondary plans are controlled (Verluyten, 2000).
Expert
managers are preferred mostly. People living in a high level uncertainty
avoidance place are emotionally unwilling because of the changes which present
an unfamiliar future. Young managers on
higher level positions show lack of sincerity towards their seniors in the
societies facing low rate of uncertainty avoidance. Every business face
internal crisis which is very common but by compromising with one another this
crisis can be overcome and there are situations where managers have to change
the rules to avoid anxiety (Verluyten, 2000).
Changes
and innovations are welcomed in the countries where there is low level of
uncertainty avoidance is experienced because they easily accept the changes and
ideas (Hofstede, 1997). While in the countries where the uncertainty level is
high, proper implementation of new ideas are required, as these cultures are
very much obedient in following every aspect and punctuality.
Femininity
in contrast of Masculinity is fourth dimension of the theory presented by
Hofstede (1997). According to Hofstede, femininity means pleasant appearance of
positive behaviour and by masculinity he meant attractiveness of modest
behaviour. In countries where there is low masculinity rate, people consider
promotion and life quality along with
relations more important while in the high level of masculinity rate countries
aims and their work are of high value (Schneider & Barsoux, 2003). It has
been observed that decisions under taken by groups are valued more than
decisions taken by individuals and masculine managers are not convinced by
service ideals (Mead, 1998).
The two
attributes that are associated with masculine managers are authoritativeness
and ferociousness (Hofstede, 1997); it is that they take decisions on their own
that are only based upon evidences without just considering others (ibid). The
level of success is however not measured in terms of property and power but it
depends on how well are the relations in feminine ethos (Mead, 1998). On the
other hand, the other category, which is of female managers, is rarely seen.
They are observed to be less authoritative and behave naturally to the situation
and consider others’ pronouncements (Hofstede, 1997). The way the female
managers resolve a quarrel also differs from that of male managers. Male
managers take support of fights to resolve matters, where the labour unions are
highly avoided by the administration whilst the story in the feminine countries
is totally the reverse. Quarrels are settled with the help of dialogue. The
nature of the meeting of the two cultures also significantly differs. The
meetings serve as a platform to discuss problems in the countries which have a
low masculinity index and seek answers that are universal whereas these
meetings give the partakers an opportunity to lay stress on them to prove that
in the masculine countries they are not doing badly (Hofstede, 1997).
The
theory of Hofstede has been critically viewed by a number of scholars for
having many weak areas. When the studies do not represent the society of a
country, they are conducted mainly in an isolated unit of national boundaries.
This happens particularly in countries which have massive cultural clusters,
such as the Italian, German, Romansch and French cultures in Switzerland, or the Castilian, Catalan and
Basque cultures of Spain
(Mead, 1998).
Constraints
and impediments in this research, for it to be critically accurate are
highlighted by Mead (1998). It is suggested that this research lacks generality
since it had relatively low number of research subjects belonging to only one
industry. The people involved belonged to mediocre class characteristically,
were moderately educated and were reluctant to observe cultural diversity in
their very vicinities. Moreover a certain gap between this group and public
service employees and fresh or unskilled labour also exists. Mead also pointed
out the possibility of acute similarity between the elementary projection of
behaviours in masculine countries and large power distance. This ambiguity made
room enough for confusion. Nevertheless, this study, unique in its nature, is
one of a kind in terms of its generality compared to the previous work,
encompassing the concept of national cultures. Mead (1998) also claims its
authenticity by pointing out its affiliation with controlled population
concept.
2.2.7
Hall’s concept of culture
Contrary
to Hofstede’s ideological artefacts on the cultural dimensions, Ed Hall, a well
known name regarding the theory of culture, happens to present his ideology
with distinct eloquence, claiming culture as a counterpart to communication
(Hall & Hall, 1990). Hall declares language, time and space as the
essential variables of communication. It is suggested that culture is either a
high context or low context, where language is the core of interaction. The
division is made on the basis of another variable which he notifies as the
information that surrounds an event (Hall and Hall, 1990).
According
to the definition a person belonging to high context culture would behave
adhering to variables of surroundings, circumstances, and nonverbal natural
intuition to understand or perform communication (Mead, 1998). However, the low
context culture would be keen to observe clarity, authenticity and
comprehensiveness during a communication when a point is put forth but not made
(Schneider and Barsoux, 2003).
Low
context cultures require complete picture and context of delivered information
in a communication session whereas high context cultures respect the natural
intuition, surroundings and circumstances, where chance of unfair advantage
over curious information may be present for some participants (Schneider and
Barsoux, 2003). Mead (1998) also claims that leaders are represented by their
subordinates in how they behave in high context cultures.
Low
context cultures usually feel more comfortable when agreements and contracts
are verbally delivered while legal paperwork appears to be an extravagant
formality. Interdependency deletes room for independent decision making and
divides power in the bureaucratic representatives widespread. A contract or
agreement is final and not be challenged in high context cultures in form of
writing, more conveniently. Characteristically, low context cultures exhibit
lack of uniformity in cultural traits contrary to high context cultures.
Hall
highlights the concepts of personal space and territoriality or vicinity. In
German and American culture the space variable is generally referred to as
‘mine’ (Hall and Hall, 1990). This space represents the ownership of certain
vicinity for instance, office of the CEO. This agrees to the practice of
designing these offices in special places like top floor, side or corner of the
building or with a different versatile structural design. The contrary
projection of space in France
is exhibited by presence of these offices in the very centres of the buildings
in the midst of subordinate offices (Hall and Hall, 1990). The concept of
personal space also exists defining the personal vicinity which is carried
along like an imaginary bubble (ibid.), this being differently recognized in
different European regions.
The
third variable which characterizes cultural structure is time, according to
Hall. Monochromic and polychromic cultures possess starkly different
perceptions of this variable. Time is defined as the frame where a number of
random events occur every moment constantly while the subjects participate in
dealing events as a regular part of this constant frame and planning is taken
as secondary, in a strict polychromic culture. Contrarily, the monochromic
cultures exhibit keenness in observing importance of current event and
punctuality is observed as a primary constraint compulsory to follow. Moreover,
planning and scheduling are regular practices in these cultures while
disturbance is highly resisted. Hall (1990) interrelate monochromic cultures
with low context mindsets while polychromic with high context people.
2.2.8
Trompenaars’ extent of culture
Fons
Trompenaar is a renowned specialist in cultural studies and international
management. Rather than theoretical and analytical elaboration on cultural
variables he presents the practical view of cultural diversity with concerns
for business and management. The book ‘Riding the Waves of culture’ defines
culture in seven dimensions with enticing practical examples (Trompenaars et
al., 2000, p. 1). Among those dimensions are universalism and particularism,
and individualistic and communitarians as counterparts of each other, and are
discussed thoroughly in the above text. Hofestede’s cultural concept also
involves dimensions of individualism and collectivism. These dimensions
correspond to Trompenaar’s dimensions of collectivism and individualism.
Universalism and particularlism defines behaviours where rules and
relationships are concerned. More importantly Trompenaars succeeded to identify
other significant variables and their counterparts including sequential and
synchronic time, external and internal control, ascribed and achieved status,
diffused and specific cultures and emotional versus neutral (Trompenaars and
Wooliams, 2003).
Third
dimension of cultural structure presented by Trompenaars differentiates
affective culture with neutral culture. The relationship between these two is
actually the measure of extent to which emotions take part in a person’s life
and the extent to which they decide behaviours (Trompenaars & Wooliams,
2003). A person belonging to affective culture will exhibit emotional behaviour
for example being overexcited, zealous etc. Moreover emotional behaviour
involves confrontational attitude which receives a similar attitude in turn.
Logical, rather than emotional approach in behaviours is practiced by neutral
cultures Mead (1998) and people belonging to such cultures are often blamed to
be egoistic, cold blooded or unemotional (Trompenaars and Wooliams, 2003).
Diffusive
and specific culture is a relatively newer dimension described in by
Trompenaars in which relative strength of relationships is studied. Manager
assistant relationships would be differentiated from regular organizational
communication in explicit cultures (Trompenaars and Wooliams, 2003). However
such relationships are very significant in diffused cultures. In all societies
it is common to have some leaders or representatives who have the highest
superiority and are considered superior for number of considerations. In the
Ascribed cultures the superiors are selected on the basis of group, sex, age,
education etc, however, extent of achievement is the sole determinant of
selection in achieved cultures (Mead, 1998). Ascribed status cultures has its
representatives allotted different tasks regardless of their specialities while
achieved status culture allot the areas of high achievement under
representatives’ command.
Trompenaars
has described time as a significant and separate dimension of culture. Hall had
presented similar perception about time regarding cultural structure. On the
basis of time Trompenaars has distinguished between two cultures: sequential
and synchronous. They correspond to Hall’s monochromic and polychromic
cultures. Synchronous time cultures consider time as a virtue of being where
numerous events occur concurrently, whereas sequential time cultures treat time
in sequence of events, considering one thing at a time, corresponding to the
monochromic culture of Hall (Trompenaars and Wooliams, 2000).
Trompenaar’s
cultural model lastly introduces the dimension which describes interaction with
nature and its variables. Cultures enlisted under characteristic of external
control value nature and observe respect towards its natural form while
internal control subjects are keen to acknowledge their superiority over laws
of nature or nature variables; businesses are also included in the controllable
variables (Trompenaars and Wooliams, 2000). In this regard Schein, Adler,
Kluckholn and Strodbeck have also presented their work. These works have
critically differentiated between behavioural and perceptive relationships with
nature also discussed by Hofestede as the dimension of uncertainty avoidance.
Moreover, human nature activity and relationship with surroundings have also
been highlighted in Hofestede’s works.
The
text above critically addresses different aspects of culture while the focus
stays on the understanding of its dimensions in organizational environment. It
is evident that culture plays an important role organizational structure and
often is imperatively determinative in designing business policies. From this
point, our focus will be an elaboration on how international marketing can
prove favourable for business policies and organizational function.
2.2.9
Conclusion
Culture is defined as an
entity encompassing people’s beliefs, values, norms, traditions and customs who
belong to different groups distinct due to race, religion or location. From
perspective of business or an organization, when it is deemed to interact with
a new culture it is compulsory to understand it to utilise it fruitfully. The
three popular theorists in the field of cultural studies provide foundations in
understanding dimensions of culture, learning cultures and making policies
aligned with these studies to make profitable policies. These fundamentals also
make room for further research in cases where cultural diversity needs to be
handled efficiently. An acute relationship between culture and advertisement
has been unveiled which sets path of policies of organizations aiming at international
markets. With international cultural orientation, organizations can not only
gain roots in the international markets, but also gain customer satisfaction on
the basis of cultural recognition. In the text below strategies oriented with
foresight of cultural diversity will be studied to help international
organizations in achieving customer satisfaction regardless of the culture by
employing culture oriented marketing practices.
2.2
RELATIONSHIP MARKETING
Advertisement
and selling of a product is a phenomenon which is used to catch the attention
of buyer as well as it also maintains their trust on the product. According to
the Kotler (2002) selling of a product is a process of attracting the attention
of the consumer with successful earning. The most important and major aspect of
successful marketing is based on the interest of the buyer. It was evident by
the study of the marketing strategies that the criterion of business promotion
is different in different ages according to the demand of the people. There are
four most important factors which determine the planning of the further
promotion of business as model of the manufactured goods, the strategy of
manufacturing, planning of advertisement and promotion of a product are the key
factors which are responsible for the transformation of marketing strategies.
History
shows that the idea of selling a product is now based on requirement and demand
of consumer and it emphasize more on the promotion of selling of a product
while in olden days it only focused on the bulk of production of the certain
selling good. The discussion about the earlier stage of marketing is also
required before the manufacturing of a product and it is necessary to know and
discuss the various concepts of selling a new good before the concept of
production. It depends on the association and affiliation between the customer
and the seller and different concepts of this relation explains the concept of
promotion of sale at that time. For instance this concept of selling depends on
only the correlation among the consumer and the manufacturer and promotion of
sale can be explained easily by simple example of selling of a product like
shirt, in that time a person who know the knitting of the shirt must have
knowledge about those people who want to wear it at that time. Their circle of
promotion of sell is limited because they did not have active means of
promotion of sell at hat time. It is also required by the manufacturers that
they have efficient means of measurement of consumer choice and demand because
the customer wanted to have those goods through which they have prior
experience and they have complete information about their selected items after
complete satisfaction and full trust the use certain product of a company on
regular bases. “Relationship Marketing”, (RM) is the term which is used to keep
the consumer hold and confidence over certain product through the different
selling strategies.
After
the development of new technology and modern techniques of promotion of selling
of goods, bulk manufacturing and supply decrease the importance of the idea of strong relationship building
among the buyer and seller and their importance did not considered greatly at
that time. With the orientation of information technology and online dealing the
close and stable relationship of seller and buyer are again gets prior
importance as the manufacturers again struggle to maintain successful
relationship to their clients and tries to achieve full advantage of data base
technology. In this relation Ritz-Carton hotel provides a good example of most
efficient and active provision to their clients with the help of complete
information about their 240,000 customers who time to time take the advantage
of their services. They maintain especial record of their repeated clients
according to their required demands and they hire employees or this database
information in their computerized system. In this way we can understand that
the influence of marketing relation is again started with the help of these new
technologies.
In
modern age where the influence of online dealing is more in the daily life of
people, companies give more attention on the requirement and choice of the
buyers. Even some companies hire especial manager for the satisfactory dealing
to their permanent clients. It indicates that the influence of relationship
marketing is more and the B-to-B marketers get benefit of it. The
accomplishment of Caterpillar is based on the powerful and efficient dealing
net work and marketing of the product provided throughout the world is an
example of those efforts used to maintain trust of their clients.
The CEO
of Caterpiller, David Fites, says with great satisfaction that “the sales representative they hire, works
with complete information about the community and their interests and they
provide us successful business dealing through complete knowledge of promotion
of a product in that area and building strong association with their clients,
selling of our goods is based on strong public relations to provide us good
reputation and long lasting interaction with the people” (Zeithaml and Bitner,
2000 p. 155).
Thirty
years before in the past the concept of marketing relations was put forward. It
was thought by many investigators that the idea of marketing relations is not
successfully implemented by most of the companies. It is true that this is the
time of tough competition as the development of technology provides new trends
of good marketing, so close relationship to the customer and knowledge of local
market is must. The successful market trends sometimes become more tough and
complicated that the scholars termed it as the business war. As a result of it
all the companies’ tries to put forward something which is new and unique in
their sense, they used modern instruments and techniques to achieve stable
position in the market. RM is one of the most potent and helpful tool of the
organisations. In this study we consider only the importance of marketing
relationships and evaluate the perception of his term so that the organisation
tries to put into practice this notion of selling relationship. We discuss the
concept of selling affiliations, its limitations and the advantages we can have
with this approach. The example of Bangladesh is used in this
reference to through light on the importance of marketing affiliations in this
society.
Definition of Relationship Marketing
In the
opinion of Gronroos (1994), advertising can be defined as the sharing of the
ideas and interest to develop, retain and improve interactions between the
buyers and other associates to gain profit and to accomplish the required aims
of all the associates of dealing. These types of interactions are not
maintained on permanent bases. To achieve the required objects of the business strategy of the organisation these interlinks
with the buyer can be explained in two different types as to catch the
attention of the consumer and to form connection with the consumer on long term
bases.
Zeithaml
and Bitner (2000) describe relationship marketing as a point of view of dealing
in a planned way of action which is used to bind their customers to their
business and not to search for the new customers by providing good services to
their existing clients. This idea shows that the trusts of the consumer
improves and maintain on an organisation to such extent that they continue
their association and did not search any other company providing same services.
Another definition which is given by Berry
and Parasuraman (1991) tells us that the RM is a business tactics which is used
to keep hold and maintain relation between the supplier and the consumer on
permanent bases. According to Coviello (1997) RM is a combination of efforts which belongs to different
orientations and it can be explains as the collection of different steps which
works out side the company to develop permanent affiliation of the people over
a period of time by developing their belief on the company. RM can be defined
more clearly and in a broad aspect by Morgan and Hunt (1994) as exchange of
thoughts to develop, retain and continue powerful relation by using different
instruments of good business deal.
In
short, marketing relation is a process of transformation of selling tactics of
an organisation according to the demands of the consumers to build good terms
among the customer and the company. The purpose of all these tactics is to
maintain relationships among the seller and the buyer which is distinctive in
its nature and other business rivals cannot be able to copy it and the company
gets successful business advantage (Berry and Gresham, 1986).
The
conclusion of all the discussion which we have stated above is to catch the
attention of a new client, which is more difficult than to keep in touch an
existing client. It is important for a company to understand this fact while
planning for a business.
2.2.1 Development of RM theory
The
expression of “selling affiliation” is used in 1970’s for the selling of the
products manufactured by industrial sectors (Gummesson et al., 1987). Then the
investigators started their work in America
named (Wilson 1976, Jackson 1985); and in Europe
(Ford 1980, Gummesson, 1987; Johanson and Mattsson, 1987) presented different
theories about the significance of making relationships on strong bases in the
field of marketing. In 70’s and early 80’s there were great discussions made
about the significance of selling associations. According to Healy (2001),
great changes were made and people prefer RM more than the simple business
tactics because it maintains stable and strong relationship among the buyer and
the seller. Gronroos (1994) represented his view point in such way that RM is
latest business tactics which influenced the previously available reading
material of selling and promotion of a product. This concept is now influencing
the business deals in Europe and Australia
and also it shows its impact slightly in North America, while in Europe this concept is completely adapted by different
companies. Another important concept which he discussed in relation of RM is
transfer of concept from theory of selling and promotion and this concept is
approved over the entire world.
In the
era of 1970s, a new thing which was introduced was information about the
product and this concept became most popular among most of the organisations. I
this way, the idea of RM became popular among the people by the time. The
scholars thought in Scandinavia and Finland
and the Nordic school
of Services that for the
good administration of a company it is necessary to introduce information about
the selling process. Gronross (1994) represent a new idea of apparent
information about the selling of the product. He put forward the idea of
providing information to the client while he is trying to get advantage of the
information available with the help of the workers and the other available
instruments, in this way he will be able to have full information and he became
an active part of the system. Another idea was represented about the servicing
by Langeard and Eiglier (1987) related to coordination process. These
interlinks developed among the client and the workers who are not directly
related to the sells department or advertisements. This concept of correlation
of the client and the company’s employee, made RM more important, and
investigators and the staff of administration realize the significance of the
RM in general business promotion.
Blattberg
and Deighton (1991) gave another idea of calculating the “customer lifetime
value”, which can be defined as the worth of particular client verse the time
period he/she spends in contact to the company. We can find out this value by
the product of mean of the clients paid for and the mean of the time period he
spends in association of the company. This concept made it clear for an
organisation that it is easy to retain an existing customer than to search or
attract new clients. The amount we get shows the importance of each business
deal with the client and sometimes the value is very large in amount. Any
carelessness in the dealing of the client will leads to the lost of his
confidence on the company and he will left the company which results in the
great loss of the company.
2.2.2 RM fundamentals
There
are different functional instruments used for the application of RM in any
company. The ideas of different investigator are not similar in this regard.
Fundamentals of RM are discussed as follow according to the view point of
different researchers.
2.2.2.1 Financial bonds
Company
provide an opportunity to the client in terms of saving the amount. This
facility is given to those clients who deal with the company for a long time
period. Another opportunity is given in terms of mark down given on bulk amount
of purchasing. We can observe easily the use of RM in different businesses of
our daily life like hotels, car hiring business, Air line industry and the
industry of travelling services. In the same way air line companies offer a
discount package to those clients who used their industry on regular bases. In
different parts of the world there are different telecommunication companies
offer bulk amount of discounts and especial encouragements to keeps their
clients and maintain good reputations in market.
Here is
one more important aspect which a company has to consider for the gain of
profit is the struggle to overcome the other rivals of business sector who
offered same facilities to their clients. It has been observed that in the
telecommunication department there are many consumers who change their services
provider frequently. Same is the case with the airline because these companies
offer same services benefits. It is necessary for the company’s healthy
business that they must provide other benefit side by side the discount offer
to bond their client on permanent bases.
2.2.2.2 Public relationships
In the
opinion of Pelton (1997), relationship among the people is interaction of the
people in a particular community and according to these interactions it is
required to adjust the policy as per the demand of the society. Perry (2001)
said that the efforts which a company utilize to develop stable and strong
interaction among the people and the organisation results in long term official
and unofficial relationship between the business associates and their clients.
Assurance, faith and dedication are the three most important fundamentals of
public relationships.
Assurance
Henry
Calonius (1988) give stress on the assurance as a fundamental unit of selling
affiliations. In his point of view a company should not emphasize only on
verbal promises. First of all they used the instruments to catch the attention
of the consumer and do not try to restrict them only certain required benefits.
They must try to fulfil all the terms and conditions they offered to their
client for the development of long term association of their existing clients.
The assurance of accompany to satisfy their clients leads to high gain of
profit and permanent relationships among the partners.
Faith
It is
one of the basic fundamental which leads to generate feeling of dedication on
both sides to secure the relationship among the partner. According to Gronroos
(1994), “the different tools and the techniques which utilized by the marketers
must build the confidence of the client on these means which tend to form
stable and strong relationship”. In this reference one more opinion which we
have is given by Moorman. He said that faith can be described as “confidence on
the business associates readily accepted by both sides.” The summery of this
explanation is both the parties show their faith and confidence on knowledge
and trustworthiness of each other. We can say that for the development of
strong and stable associations reliability is must which leads to accomplish
long standing relationships. When one loses his faith the relation also breaks
down (Palmer, 2001).
Dedication
The
third important fundamental of public relation is dedication. Emotional
dedication based on affective association and the calculative dedication is
measurement of worth of relationship (Morgan and Hunt, 1994). Both the
dedications are helpful in the maintenance of both sides positive response.
Emotional dedication develops the affiliation on emotions (Kumar, 1994).
2.2.3 Relationship of framework
Wilson
and Mummalaneni (1986) stated that when two companies tries to work together
for the adjustment of the procedure or the manufactured good. It is required to
develop correlations in the frame work of two companies on the technical or
financial bases. These business relationships break down when the two business
associates tries to settle their business themselves with their own funds, it
is difficult to recover their funds in this situation. In contrast to it
business leads to success with joined efforts (Turnbull and Wilson, 1989). For
instance distribution of knowledge and the funds is incorporated in
business-to-business frame work (Gordon, 1998; Haekansson and Snehota, 1995),
sharing of information (Gordon, 1998; Haekansson and Snehota, 1995), mutual
activities (Mattson, 1985), and incorporated skills and assets of companies
(Perry, 2001).
Complete
structure of RM is provided by Adam Lindgreen (2001). He discussed three
essentials frame works of RM as aim, explanation of frame work and tools. This
structure can be easily understandable by the help of investigative model,
given below;
Distribution of selling bonds in aims, explanation of frame
work and tools
Source:
Adam Lindgreen, A framework for studying relationship-marketing dyads,
Qualitative Market Research, Vol 4. No. 2; (2001).
2.2.4 Conclusion
In
modern age of science and technology the companies struggle for the competitive
advantage. They utilized the modern techniques of sell promotion and transfer
their system from usual theoretical approach to new techniques, struggle to
retain stable position in the market. They show their concern to produce the
products according to the demand of the clients. To keep their client in touch
of the organisation is the priority of a company rather than the search of new
customers. For this purpose, different marketing instruments are used to maintain
long term relationships with the existing consumer. In this regard companies
offer especial benefits to their clients in the form of discounts to support
them financially, also maintain their assurance on the company through reliable
services which leads to the devotion of both partners or they introduced
different changes according to the demand of their clients.
2.3 INTERNATIONAL
NEGOTIATION
2.3.1
Introduction
While talking about international trade, it does not only
mean that something is going on outside the borders but it also crosses the
limits of the culture. Culture is a wide term which includes the behaviour, the
mind set and the communication skills of the people of different
backgrounds. Different cultures are
reflected by the ways under which individuals or corporations from diversified
backgrounds deal with each other. The cultural differences of the countries can
act as barriers in the negotiation process. Like for instance, cultural
difference existing between Chinese manager, working in Shanghai
and the head of a Canadian company, existing in Toronto can create a block in the negotiation
process.
Rapid increase in international discussions has been seen
from quite a few decades, especially in Poland. International negotiations have become common
because of globalization, strengthening trading relations and economic and
political incorporation within the European Union. International negotiations
have become common in both diplomatic and business environments. The increase
in the international negotiations has become so common now days that it has
gained attention of many scholars. The differences in culture have an adverse
impact on the international negotiations, and this fact has attracted the
scholars to a great extent (Lewicki et al., 2006).
2.3.2
Models of International Negotiations Processes
According to recent approaches, the redesigning of the
political institutions and constitutions has taken place due to continuous
bargaining process (Doron et al., 2001). Keeping this in view, the political
entrepreneurs invest in the deliverance of collective goods. Investing in
deliverance of goods mean that the political entrepreneurs are bringing rules
under implementation and anticipating rents from the political activity. The
actions are taken by the state leaders or the government itself. The actions
can take place from the local to the international level. The difference
between the actions of today’s leaders and the previous ones is that the new
actors have a positive approach towards their work, and they strive to get
benefits for themselves, moreover, the institutions are also considered to be
the result of the bargain (Doron et al., 2001). The actors who are residing in
the international sphere are concerned about the domestic as well as
international limitations (Bueno de Mesquita, 2003). The negotiations that take
place in the international sphere have less institutionalized context, which
means that the commitment towards rules is not much guaranteed. The nature of
Hobbesian state provides a permanent risk to the international laws.
For the economic representation of mutually dependent
decisions the non-cooperative game theory plays a role as the natural
contestant. The approach of game-theory defines bargaining as a process by which
an individual himself tries to reach to an agreement. The bargaining process is
time consuming because players continue making offers and counteroffer to one
another (Muthoo, 1999).
According to the latest studies, Rubinstein alternating
offer setup is the only mechanism for carrying out bargaining. This procedure
basically defines the steps that are to be carried out in the bargaining game
(Muthoo, 1999). These approaches place criticism on the Rubinstein’s
assumptions, which can be withdrawn even after they have been made, but this
happens as per the intentions. If these models are extended then reliability of
the commitments become unpredictable and this is linked with the gradual
revocation that in turn affects the revocation cost (Muthoo, 1999). Concurrent
initial offers are supposed in one version, while the second stage comprises of
concessions for the purpose of removing the deadlocks. The sequences according
to which the concessions are given depend upon the distribution of information
and the incidence of revocation cost that is specific to the actors. It is easy
to access equilibrium in case of Rubinstein model. If the information is
incomplete and restrictive assumptions are avoided, it is difficult to reach at
efficient or unique equilibrium. The restrictive assumptions are based on are
few actors who do not contain private information related to valuation process
and outcome (Muthoo, 1999).
The sum and substance of the discussion is: the theory of
bargaining analysis is incomplete as it does not have any genuine theory that
could explain the bargaining process. In order to reach at the strong
conclusions, it is mandatory that outcomes are assessed carefully and the time
of making offer along with the individual who makes this offer (Muthoo, 1999).
There are many forces behind the dynamics affecting principles of actual games,
however, there are many misunderstandings related to these rules (Brams,
2000). When there is a discussion about
negotiation dynamics, it is even more difficult to bridge the knowledge gap.
There is a strong need that both national and international constraints are
analysed deeply by various decision makers in the light of their decisions and
expectations (Bueno de Mesquita, 2003).
2.3.3
Cultural affect on negotiation
The essence of negotiation may appear different to people
belonging to different cultures. Even the process and definition of negotiation
may be different for them. In many cultures, businessmen assume that
negotiation takes place to develop relations between two or more parties. On
the other hand, there are cultures who strongly believe that the ultimate
objective of negotiation is to reach at the consensus and sign the agreement.
Few people also believe that developing favourable relations is the ultimate goal
of signing agreement.
People belonging to
different cultures have different perceptions hence they behave differently in
case of negotiation as well. Huge literature is available that supports the
presence of difference of opinion because of cultural differences. In
theoretical and practical aspects of cross cultural and international
negotiations, many scholars have presented their views (Cohen, 2004). An easy
theoretical model has been developed by Brett (2001) that explains the impact
of culture on negotiations.
Figure
1 – How culture influence negotiation
Source: Brett (2000), p. 102.
The model explains that cultural values impact negotiation
wellbeing and whatever they line up. On the other hand, the impact of the
customs of cultural is on the approaches of negotiation and the way they act
together. The ultimate conclusion from this model is unpleasing for the
scholars associated with it. If it the case that culture is having an impact on
fundamental factors of negotiations such as interests, priorities or the
selection of strategies and it has also been observed that the influence of
culture is generally unintentional, then all the differences in multicultural
negotiation can be qualified to cultural differences between negotiators. There
are also other factors other than culture that have the same outcomes. The
appearance of an individual in a variety of cultures shapes his negotiating
behaviour. The other factors having identical outcomes consist of the persona
of the negotiator and process or essential variables. One difficult task is to
correctly measure the comparative relation of each variable. It is also
incorrect to keep culture as the explanatory variable of negotiation result.
The studies that explain differences in negotiation aspects and keep culture as
the single independent variable are not of much benefit. It can also be
repetitive sometimes which permits the researchers to explain what they
developed at the beginning of their proposition.
Avruch (2000) and Sebenius (2002a) furthermore indicated
that all the physiognomies of the culture are not being equally shared by every
member of the same group. There is a lot of diversity of behaviours within
cultures. It can be as extensive as cross-cultural assessments. This is one of
the reasons why linking culture and negotiation have become so difficult
particularly when it concerns international negotiation research. According to
Weiss (2003), it is vital not to overvalue culture’s impact on international
negotiation, although the elements of culture have significance. Dialdin et al.
(1999) introduced a term called cultural attribution error. The recommendation
of Weiss became more beneficial in results obtained by their research. Cultural
attribution error is the lack of knowledge of the imperative situational
dynamics in support of cultural explanations.
2.3.4
Perception
The procedure of selection, screening and the understanding
of stimuli in order to improve meaning to individual is called perception.
Perception research started in 1950s but in the late nineties it grasped the
attention of negotiation theorists and experts. These theorists mainly paid
attention to perceptual distortions (Weiss, 2003; Sebenius, 2002a).
A basic model of the perceptual process in bilateral
negotiation is shown in Figure 2. The behaviour of a negotiator, as per
accordance to this model, acts as an incentive for the other negotiator who
then skims out the useful elements from it to interpret.
This process is
prominently more problematical in international negotiation as compared to
other cases. The behaviour of Negotiator A who is influenced by culture is
observed through the cultural lens of Negotiator B whose behaviour is based on
the interpretations which is then observed by Negotiator A and then the process
is done again. The differences in culture can, as a result, also draw false
impression of the behaviour of the negotiator and their core objectives and
interests. The final solution for the negotiated problem derived through the
process’s repetitive and interactive character may be grounded in incorrect
inferences because of misinterpretation which may cause reactions to be
adjusted inappropriately which may prove to be suboptimal.
Figure 2 – Perceptual
process in bilateral negotiation
Source; Author
When we accept this
statement, it can result in a conclusion that in international negotiation, the
cultural differences magnify because of the perceptual processes. As such, the
differences between perceptual and cultural styles causes the international
negotiation processes to have greater value of generating potential when the
differences are acknowledge by the parties and are used to create value.
2.3.5
National Negotiating Styles
The culture of the
negotiators is seen through their style of negotiation. According to Salacuse
(1998), negotiating style is commonly described as a person’s method behaves in
negotiations coming from different cultures. As such, the implication of the
definition is:
- A strong link is
present between negotiation style and the culture of the person
- The person’s
negotiation style can be analysed through his/her behaviour in various
negotiations.
Scholars place their
focus on a certain selected negotiator behaviour aspects known as negotiation
traits or factors in order to analyse the cultural differences in different
negotiation styles. The selection of these factors is based on the potential
variability and relevance across various cultures. Many scholars have used
different traits in their studies to identify the influence of the cultural
difference on negotiation style or measuring the negotiation styles. The
approach and results of seminal study based on the international negotiating
styles by Jeswald Salacuse is presented in this research (Salacuse, 1998). Ten
various negotiation factors used by Salacuse (1998) with the possible responses
of culture to each are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 – Research
framework for determining negotiating styles
Source: Salacuse (1998), p. 223.
2.3.6
Advice for International Negotiators
Even though much
literature is available on the cross-cultural and international negotiation,
not much can be found on prescriptive recommendations for the challenges of the
international negotiation. There are many contributions that stand out in
literature as practical and effective solutions universally. Two of these
contributions are shared here.
According to Weiss
(2003) it was advised by many scholars that practitioners need to follow the Saint Augustine approach called “When in Rome, do as the Romans do”. In contrast,
Lewicki et al. (2006) point out that there is consensus among the scholars that
this is an oversimplified advice which is impractical. Therefore, in 1994, a
new approach was given by Stephen Weiss in his “Negotiating with Romans”
seminal paper where eight strategies that are culturally responsive are
provided for using it in international negotiation. As such, the organisation
of these strategies is based on:
- The level of
familiarity of the negotiator with the opposite culture.
- The familiarity of the
counterpart with the culture of the negotiator.
- The explicit
coordination possibility for the approaches.
Joint strategies as
denoted by the strategies placed in brackets require close co-ordination with its
counterpart. A negotiator, at each familiarity level, may choose the strategy
of that level or any other lower level.
Brett (2001) and
Thompson (2005) provide any set of comprehensive advice for the cross-cultural
and international negotiators. Both these scholars recommend that every
negotiator needs to:
1. Predict the
differences in tactics and strategies causing any misunderstandings – The
culture of the negotiator as well as the cultural differences affects the
negotiating style and behaviour of the negotiator. An advantage can be gained
in international negotiation if these differences are anticipated. Negative
attributions regarding the counterpart negotiator is reduced when cultural
differences are understood which also helps in viewing the cultural differences
as an inherent element of the process of international negotiation.
2. For creating value,
identify the differences in priorities by analysing cultural differences –
Differences form the basis of value in negotiation as compared to the similarities.
If the cultural differences in international negotiation are high then there is
higher probability of attaining a win/win agreement or a consolidated
agreement.
3. Identify the fact
that the other may differ from your view regarding what elements constitute
power - Power is immensely context dependent and greatly subjective and
perceptual. It encompasses one’s ability to cast an impact on the decisions of
other people. It is essential for international negotiators to realize the fact
that the estimation of power by the other party may be based on entirely
different factors. These factors might be trivial like the power of status vs.
the power of alternatives. An integrative agreement is less likely to be
achieved if a power contest is considered.
4. Avoid attribution
errors – Attribution errors take place when people tend to ignore the
environmental and social forces affecting the behaviour of a person and
consider that person’s behaviour to be a part of his original personality. So
it is essential for intercultural sensitive negotiators to refrain from
attributing their partners’ behaviour to their underlying personality and must
consider their situational and cultural norms.
5. Identify the way of
rendering respect in other culture – Each country shows respect in a different
way, so it is imperative to respect the other party before beginning the
process of negotiation.
6. Find out your choices
for incorporating change – following are the four options available to
negotiators in case of clashes occurring in the cultures:
- Integration – takes
place when each group familiarizes with the cultures of other groups while
maintaining its own cultural norms.
- Separation – occurs
when a group values its own culture but fails to preserve the norms of other
culture.
- Assimilation – takes
place when a group fails to preserve its own culture but maintains contact with
the culture of the other group.
- Marginalization –
occurs when the group neither preserves its own cultural norms nor attempts to
maintain the culture of other groups.
2.3.7
Conclusion
The domestic
negotiations are much simpler than the international ones. The difference in
the culture of the negotiators’ is the core reason behind this fact, which
closely impacts negotiators’ behaviour. These differences are intensified by
the perception of the participants as well. The difference of cultures is
depicted by the typical negotiating style of negotiators’ belonging to
different cultures. This does not imply that negotiators’ belonging to the same
culture will negotiate in the same way; rather each negotiator will depict a
typical pattern of behaviour. Negotiators in the international negotiation
scenario need to take into account structural and individual aspects for
pursuing a culturally responsive strategy. Negotiators at the international
level can be highly successful if they develop a high level of sensitivity
towards cultural factors and value them.
This knowledge lends a
hand to begin the negotiation process with potential partners belonging to
unknown and distant cultures. This knowledge has served with an effective tool
for dealing with this negotiation. It provides the key to successful
negotiation which lies in amicably avoiding intercultural traps, which if not
catered properly can turn out to be quite problematic.
2.4 JAPANESE
CULTURE
Japan
is a peaceful and content country having constructive amalgamation of their
life style and have progressive attitude. Japanese have distinctive and bright
past and tradition having prominent and different protocol, respect and chain
of command which can be seen in the trade and public activities of different
countries of this age. Clear understanding and full knowledge about the customs
of Japanese culture is essential while stating business in Japan (Jodie
and Gorrill, 2009).
2.4.1 Japanese life style _ Major ideas and ethics
Wa-
this is the most important concept in the culture of Japan which is still used in the
country, ‘wa’ means unity. This notion of amalgamation was first introduced in
the society when the people started living and working in groups in 604 AD, the
first charter was introduced in their society. In trade this term is used in
the sense of maintenance of good relationship without any selfishness and
distinctiveness. We can easily observe the influence of 'wa' in different
attitudes of Japanese life style, especially in their simple term of saying
'no'.
Kao- It
is an important value of Japanese culture which is as an impression of ‘face’.
The position of an individual in the society is represented by face which is
the symbol of superiority. To avoid different conflicts among the people this
symbol is conserved as per situation. In Japan misplace of face is
considered as the break down of business deal.
Omiyari
– Just like the idea of ‘wa’ and ‘kao’, ‘omiyaro’ is the term used to express
the feeling of dedication and sympathy in Japanese culture of trade. In simple
word it means ‘understanding of the emotion of others’. That’s why for
successful and long term relation in Japanese business culture the respect of
the emotions and belief is must (Jodie and Gorrill, 2009).
Language
is one of the great obstacles while communicating to Japanese people because
they did not have full command on English. Although English is introduced as an
important subject in primary schools of Japan and is also available in high
classes and universities. Despite of the fact they are unable to express their
point of view clearly in English and sometimes it seems that they are rude but
they are trying to describe something in a comprehensive way. Japanese are very
courteous and bashful in nature. They give short replies in formal way like
"No! ", "It's difficult" or "It's impossible. It is
not the symbol of rudeness. The reason behind this fact is that they find
themselves helpless while explaining something in English because Japanese is a
deep language and they have not full command as the western conversation style.
So did not ask them frequent questions, first give them some time to understand
the question then they will answer you in a specific way. Considering the
importance of language problem some of the institution working in private
sector has started teaching English in Japan. We expect that in the
upcoming time Japanese generation will have good command on English and used it
in without any hesitation. In this regard there are certain dissimilarities in
the lifestyle of different groups in Japan and one must have knowledge
about them to avoid any conflict. There is very low rate of misdeeds because
they give priority to the personal safety, moreover there is no tipping in Japan
(Richard, 2005).
In Japan the
respect of morals is compulsory for everyone, each individual has to obey the
rules of their traditions, but still there are certain exceptions like those
people who did not respect the social norms and the young age group. Japanese
believe in joined activities, they prefer the requirements of the society over
the individual needs means they prefer other than themselves (Ritts, 2000).
They are very anxious about the relations and think for the interest of others.
There is a famous Japanese quotation in this reference as “that the nail that
comes out is cut down”. It was pointed
out by (Russo, 2003) that in Japanese customs there is no way to support personal
interests. There were special instructions given to the Japanese Americans to
obey the rules of the society and it is in their nature that they must obey the
principles of their tradition or their parents’ advices. In opposite to that
the American society has different trend they want their children to build
their own identity. American culture appreciates a person’s individual identity
while in Japanese tradition it is prohibited. In American educational
institutions they appreciates those students who took part in different
activities, tries to express themselves, even their participation is not
important they get good grades. Japanese custom gives great respect to teacher.
They believe that the teacher is the actual guider of the students and student
must obey him. They consider that the participation in other activities is not
necessary to score good ranks.
Being apart of American
life style it is difficult for someone who belong to the Japanese civilization
because of the difference in the life style and thinking of both nations.
Similar is the case for those ones who belong to the Asian civilization they
have their own ideas about goodness, strength of mind, fatalism, importance of
harmony, self control and unseen events (Ho, 1992).
2.4.2 Doing Business in Japan
Japan
had adapted frequently different western skills in the end of 19th
century and in the beginning of 20th century. After the beat in
WW11, Japan
appeared as one of the leading business power of the world because it
strengthens its financial status and became world’s unbeaten exporter. Now Japan
has secured a stable, strong market position in the world and it gives open
offer for the overseas deals and trades (Jodie and Gorrill, 2009).
2.4.3 Working in Japan (Pre-departure)
Working
practices in Japan
• The
old concept about the business deals of Japan
that it takes time for discussion is not valid in these days as the current
business struggle in Asia becomes tough.
•
Personal talks are effective for the business deals than sending written
messages
•
Regularity and being regular is consider as a prospective job in Japan one must
take care of timing and be punctual.
Hierarchy
structure in Japanese companies
• In
the business meetings of Japanese companies there is chain of command and the
talk started from the higher authority to the middle level. The process of
taking certain decision is done on grouped bases.
• It
was observed that the officers in the business meeting f Japan sit according to their
seniority bases. The most senior person sits at the front side and the least
senior at the back. Sometimes it is also observed that tee most senior person
select his seat.
• It is
essential to discuss her that the current business in Japan the selection of the
authority depends on performance and even a low rank person can be a manager if
performed well.
Working
relations in Japan
• There
is great respect given to the seniors in Japanese business style. According to
the age position is change. On the other hand in modern business environment
abilities and educational background is also considered.
• One
important tradition of Japan
is that they always maintain certain distance according to their position. For
instance body contact except shake hand is not allowed in public areas.
Business
practices in Japan
• The
exchange of business cards is an important step for the start of any business
deal. Use of both hands is necessary to show cards or 'meishi'. This card must
be written in both languages. After receiving the counterpart's business card
clarify that you checked it carefully before putting it down. Showing concern
of another’s dealing card is important.
• Exchange of gifts was
an important part of Japanese business practices. It is not practiced in
current Japanese business tradition. Only a wave of hand is accepted as a
symbol of gratefulness. Too big size gift offered is considered a bribe.
• Before detailed
discussions small talks must be practiced. In these conversations information
about the education, family and life style is asked but not in detailed way.
Confidential questions are not allowed to ask.
• Japanese consider long
term relations more important. Care of the both partners of businesses is
essential. In their business practice contracts are not the finals deal it does
not means that business is over.
2.4.4 Manners of doing business in Japanese culture
DO In serious matter
never hesitate to apologize and showing your appreciation and thankfulness
considered good in Japan.
DO In business
conversations always keep away from conflicts and negative feelings.
Communicate without any restriction but avoid antagonistic attitude.
DO welcome your
colleague with admiration and courtesy. It your partner bows then you wave in
the answer of it but sometime only shake hand is enough.
DONT give especial
attention to a single Japanese colleague in front of group of other people
because sometime group is important than the single person.
DONT use the first name
of the Japanese corresponding person. Use the titles 'Mr' or 'Mrs' or add 'san'
to their family name; for example, Mr Hiroshima will be "Hiroshima san"
DONT use wave of hands,
expression of face, unusual movements because Japanese do not talk with their
hands (Jodie and Gorrill, 2009).
2.4.5 Cultural Dimensions with respect of Japanese Culture
Geert
Hofstede was a Dutch organisation investigator. In 1980 he studied the
behaviour of more than 100,000 workers of international companies belonged to
40 different countries (Hofstede, 1980; Hofstede, 1983; Hofstede, 1984; Hofstede,
1991; Hofstede, 1997; Hofstede, 2001). He pointed out the extent across which
we found change in life style. The extent which he discussed used as a tool to
illustrate tradition. He presented four different dimensions of culture which
are uniqueness, male dominance, evading of doubt, authority difference. The
extent of male or female dominance is discussed as the self confident or
encouragement of principals. Grouped activity and independent behaviour shows
the difference of strongly bonded and weak cultures. Distribution of authority
can be seen through one more dimension which is authority difference.
Evading
of any doubt shows the property of a culture to accept any uncertain situation
or any threat arises. Hofstede (1984) point out one more extent for the
judgement of culture which is a Confucian dynamism termed as permanent based
and temporarily build relations. This fifth dimension explains the difference
among the values of strong and stable environment and temporarily based
relations build in the society.
2.4.5.1 Socialism against
Individuality
Socialism
against individuality is the first major extent of culture. It shows the
attitude of people in the society and their relations with the others. Those
cultures which prefer personal interest over the grouped activity have not
stability and strength in their relations because everybody shows his concern
for himself and his family. The present time status based on individualism is
defined by Masakazu (1994). He said that “ideas of people which express their
personal interest, their own way of life and also their struggle for their
personal interest” (p. 127). In grouped cultures the interest of other is
superior to the personal benefit. This thought brought stability and strength
in their relations and they show their full devotion and reliability throughout
the life (Hofstede, 1997). For the planning of future aims and objects we
observed difference in attitude of both types. In those cultures based on
personal interest the goals are planned according to the need of a person or
his family which shows low concern towards the interest of groups. In grouped
societies the interest of other groups of people are first preference when they
plan for future. That’s why there is strong relationship found in socialism and
the relations are not so firm in individualistic cultures.
United
state of America
is an example of self representative culture. They want to recognize a person
on his personal identity. Like his name, job and designation, his progress in
life, his life style, and mode of travelling are the things which were asked to
a person when meet him for the first time in American society. The cultures
based on personal preference are isolated type of way of living. In opposite to
it the grouped cultures give stress on the association of people. Here all the
activities were interlinked to each other and they work for the welfare of
society. The importance of socialism is hard to understand for those ones who
live in individualistic atmosphere. For instance in Colombia family name is important
rather than the personal identification. Information about the family is
important for them because the family name decide his status in the society.
They did not ask any question about the personal success in life.
In
America there are some families which give importance to their family name like
Rockefeller, Kennedy, DuPont, Getty—that known by their name. In overall
society an individual is identify through his name and not by his family
status. In past individual were identify through their family name and for any
new associate an individual must get permission to use the name of one’s
family. There were proper criteria of asking permission and allowing permission
for the start of relationship. Nowadays only personal reference is enough to
introduce an individual without any family references.
The
effects of individual culture are so powerful in America that it is difficult to
understand the importance of grouped cultures and the feelings of the people
about the collectivist life style. Satisfaction can be achieved through the
identification and status of a person in the society.
In
the personal based cultures the link between the management and the staff
depends on performance and the appointment and promotions in job were based on
person’s own ability and according to the principles. In grouped activity based
cultures the association among the firm and the worker depends on the good
terms like the family connection and the decision of job appointment and progress
in job depends on an individual activity in the group.
Many
things related to this regard are exposed by Hofstede’s data.
- Prosperity, Independence and
prosperity of a country depends on each other.
- Physical features,
the self dependent culture is found in the countries having cold and
normal weather.
- Rate of birth,
Countries having more increase in population have tendency of grouped
cultures.
- Historical
Aspect, People who emigrate from
Europe and stayed in America,
Australia, and New Zealand
showed individuality in their living in inhabitant countries, while
Confucian countries lived in socialism.
Another
parameter for the judgment of type of culture is inheritance distribution,
which was put forward by Knighton (1999). The societies which based on equal
distribution of property among all children prefer to live in groups. The
societies having complete authority of decision making for the distribution of
inherit things or those who were allowed to make uneven distribution tends to
be independent. Independent and grouped activities depend on the style of
talking selected for the communication among the people to expose the ideas in
open oral discussions. In direct style a person himself talks about his
requirements and wishes. The grouped cultures where the indirect mode of
communication is used the requirements and the desires of the presenter are not
personified through language.
Rojjanaprapayon
(1997) presented a particular technique of contact in Thai communication. To
expose unwanted expressions Thais did
not use particular words, they more likely use word and phrases to show
possibility, for example, “maybe,” “probably,” “sometimes,” “likely,” and “I
would say so, but I am not sure”; The do not
expose their feeling in front of others when they did not like
something. They use unspoken way of communication by expressing their body
language like they avoid eye contact and increase personal distance.
2.4.6 Japan as a uniform culture
In
1983 Hofstede’s investigation located that Japan has dual trend i.e.
individualism and collectivism. But now Japan is labeled as grouped based
culture. Hofstede questionnaires were used by Japanese students in the year
1995 for an investigation. The results collected by the student showed that
there were more points for independent behavior and fewer points for authority
difference, Woodering found that it is different to Hofstede’s original sample.
The reason of this difference given by Woodring is age, means the student
preferred individuality and impartiality is preferred by their society as a
whole. It is also indicated by the investigation that the prosperity and
independence depend on each other by Hofstede’s longitudinal study. In 1990 a
term is use for the people of age 25 or younger, (shin jin rui means young
people). The old generation in Japan considers young people that
“they did not obey their elders and their tradition they prefer their own
interest.” The reason of this opinion of the elder people is that the new
generation in Japan
wants fewer restrictions in distribution of authority and wants to be
independent of the grouped ideas and deeds. It is evidence that we should not
consider the Hofstede research true. In the year 1986 Japan was claimed as a Harmonized
country by the Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone and it is supported by the
Japanese also. The following factors (the past, faith and different styles of
lining) discussed as below to show that uniformity affect culture.
2.4.6.1 History
The
geographical status of Japan
consists of four main islands and there are other more than 3,000 small islands
spread over the area of 377,835 square kilometers. This is approximately equal
to the size of California.
Only 20%of its surface is suitable for agriculture the remaining 80% consist of
hills or mountains. Due to this fact Japan import most of its food items
or depend on sea food. Sea food is major part of their diet and Japan
is one of the most popular fish makers. To fulfill the food requirement it
exports different countries.
The
population of Japan
is half of the U.S population, it is nearly 126 million. As compare to it the
area to live in is only 4% of land area, so the area is thickly populated and
the thickness of population is about 850 people per square mile. The density of
population is 58 in America.
There are 47 governmental units in Japan.
78%of
population of Japan resides
in cities and 45% of its inhabitant lives in three big cities, one of them is Tokyo the biggest city of the worlds, others are Osaka, and Nagoya.
The beginning of Japanese culture is not clear. It was thought that it was
influenced by Chinese culture as it passed to Korea. The symbol of rising sun is
present on its country flag as Japan
is the country where the Sun arises.
History
of Japan shows that there
were a continuous line of rulers who ruled over Japan and leads to the present
time. It was believed via tale that all the Japanese related to the king
through their forefathers. Before the World War II in Japan it was believed that the king
was god and the people worshipped him. From 1926 to 1989 Hirohito was the
ruler. History told us that there was a full year of grief passed after his
death than a full season of growing rice was followed before his son was
crowned as the legal king of the country in the year 1990.
The
Japanese past comprises of two important points, it had the same culture based
on more than 10,000 years still the Japanese life style is able to adapt the
culture of other business countries and the technology as a part of their
custom. In 1853 Japan
a customized the western technology and shift from a feudal country to the
mechanized nation, after Perry’s influx with the war ships. U.S culture was
entered in Japanese cities from the mid-1920s to the mid-1930s. After World War
II Japanese more tends towards western lifestyle. The charter which was made
after the World War was put forward by Allied occupation authorities and
accepted by the Japanese assembly and approved Japan as established kingdom. Once
more Japan made only a
security force under the influence of the America. Only 0.9% of its gross national product was
spent on defense, from 1960 to 1988. United state spends 6.4% at the same time.
Japan spends billion of
dollars each year to support financially U.S military bases in Japan.
Japan
did not send its army in 1991 Gulf War; it had faced lots of comments in
response of this step. Then Japan
provided its troops for peace keeping purpose and played noncombat role in
different countries like Cambodia,
Afghanistan and East Timor
then in Iraq
for peace keeping purpose.
Japan is a leading country of the world possesses second or
third largest economy of the world. It
has many worldly famous technological and household companies. It is one of the
important overseas share holder and financial supporter of the world. Now
Japanese adapt changes in their life style quickly. Their language is also
influenced by the western countries. Words of English language also used in
their communication. This fast adaption of western culture is criticized by
some Asian countries.
2.4.6.2 Faith
Japan is one of the identical countries of the world.
Majority of its population consist of Japanese, Chinese, and Koreans which is
95% of its population. The remaining 5% is native Ainu. In 1997 it was tried to
substitute hundred years old law which incorporate the Ainu as Japanese’s and
the assembly voted for this. United nation accepted Ainu as the resident of Japan in 1992 but still these people have to
face opposition in Japan.
Religion is not an important issue for them. Jesuit missionaries in 1549 first
time brought Christianity in Japan
but Christian were less than 1%of its population. The influence of Christian
culture is more in their life style, beliefs and morals. The great part of its
inhabitant follows combination of Shinto and Buddhism. Shinto is near to their
national religion.
Shinto
was accepted as the religion of the country from the Meiji Restoration of 1868,
until the end of World War II. It is only a faith which based on a connection
to gods and forefathers. Shinto has three important concepts and it mean “the
way of the Gods”. Adoration of the God of Japan, devotion to Japan and
promotion of Japanese spirit are the three main ideas of this faith. It is
believed that to be Japanese and to be a Shinto’s is same terms. Shintoism is
divided in two different categories: Popular Shinto, who reside in homes and
Sect Shinto, they belief in rebirth and welfare of the humanity and worship of
god. State Shinto, were the third type. They believed that the Japanese were
different from the other nations, outstanding in their good values, wisdom and
bravery. This type was come to an end in 1945 by order of the Allies.
In the middle of 6th century Buddhism
brought to Japan from Korea. In Japan there are
more than 200 divisions of Buddhism having great difference in their
principals. Buddhism is “accepted religion of Japan” and is seen in the holy
places and family worship sites. Many families perform the events of both
religion for instance the Buddhist monument service and Shinto wedding
ceremony. The religion is not a belief it is only a custom of public life
style. It was though that due to scarcity of religious approach Japan has no
rule but still there is concept of clear thoughts, spiritual beauty,
encouragement of views and respect o human and nature are the important
traditional beliefs.
There
was a question asked to the Japanese nation about the most salient
characteristic of their culture by Hajime Nakamura (1964) of the National
Institute of Science and Technology Policy in Japan. First important feature is
equality among the people secondly its natural beauty, its past and customs,
the industry and ability of its people, country’s success, culture and art, its
high level of schooling are the aspects which were given by the people.
2.4.6.3 Cultural Patterns
Most
of the part of Japan is Island and there is no border or any other country so it
is not influenced by the culture of any other nation. Its population is
homogenous and the cultural pattern is difficult to describe. Another opinion
is that the culture of Japan
is not uniform. But it was believed that the tradition is consistent in the
legends and it was an important concept. Japan had not influenced by foreign
effects till1853. Due to uniformity in its culture its history is also pure.
Every one share same ideas having not any foreign influence, more over the
country is not so big and most of the part is sea, as a thickly populated
country the ideas and information can be easily shared which are pure without
any doubt. Cultivation of rice is their custom based on team work, increase
assistance and minimize clashes, which are necessary for our life just like
rice.
The
uniformity of Japan
facilitates its people “exchange of ideas without language” (Tsujimura, 1996).
Having single language it is not difficult for Japanese to understand each
other without more words. As compare to it USA is multicultural country needed
more words to prevail over different languages, different way of living,
difference in feeling and thoughts. There is a proverb in Japan “Less
talk more benefit” means talkativeness is harmful and “more talk call sin”. In
present time same practice is followed. All the schools have same schedule and
same uniform. Support the student to take part in games.
Japan is a reliable country having separate islands. There
is no demarcation. The foreigners are the people belong to the United States, Europe, and other parts of Asia. There are two divisions; Japan and others: gaikoku, or
another nation, and gaijin, outer person. Japan is peaceful country avoid any
clash in the society by practicing uniformity and evade differences. They
believe on collectivism and did not like individuality or personal interest as
in united state. They feel proud to work for the interest of people.
Japanese
people believe in joined efforts and they work together and think for the
others not themselves. Uniformity is the main characteristic of their life and
it influences all the other aspects also. They depend on each other. There is
no concept of personal identification and they do not like to talk about
differentiation among the people as the society base on grouped activity,
collectivism is the recognition of Japan and personal life is the
trait of UAS. Amae is the term which is used by Takeo DOI (1956, 1973) to
define the unity and homogeneity of the society. Amae is a noun which is
derived from a verb amaeru which means take care and support other without
personal interest. It is an idea developed in people that they must be
respected and appreciated by the others.
This
feeing can be seen in association among the mother and child and then move
forward towards the child and teacher and other relationships according to
their power. Amae is interdependent relationship means the dependence is from
the both sides as it is the requirement of the association, just as in the case
of mother and child, both support and care each other. It is directly opposite
to the concept of independence. The revolution of science and technology also
imposed on the thinking of young age group of Japanese nation. They try to make
their identity not on the lines of tradition but as a nation. Their long
established back ground is replaced by the international life style. May be they realize the fact that their
culture is not as uniform as their old belief suggested. It is thought that the
mode of communication and its background which is not easily understood by the
other peoples, Japan
also not prefer to continue them.
2.4.7 Masculinity versus Femininity
Is
second important measurement of culture variation i.e. masculinity verses
femininity. Hofstede (1980) concluded in his research that the character of men
changes more than the women’s part according to tradition to tradition. Those
customs which predicated maximum distinction among the role of man and women,
he termed as male dominated culture. These back grounds have high standard of
boldness, struggle and accomplishment. In contrast to it the cultures having
mix part of both male and female are termed as female dominated back ground.
There cultures are characterized by the support of weak, more value of
relations and excellence of life. It is important to understand that these
traits apply to both women and men; that is, both women and men learn to be
ambitious and competitive in masculine cultures, and both women and men learn
to be modest in feminine cultures.
Rojjanaprapayon
(1997), in his investigation on Thais people in United State
suggested that the idea of Hofstede about the western male dominance as bold,
fierce and strict to their objectives is not same in all cultures. Thai people
some time appear to be violent and firm to their aim but they are cooperative,
soft and caring by nature. He suggested referring this male dominance
measurement as love more suitably. The role of the manager in male denominated
culture is bold and influential and in female dominating areas in work place
the manager is perceptive and work for harmony peace and good quality of life.
There are two links of Hofstede’s data with this measurement.
Physical
features, in cold area the Feminine cultures are more established.
Family
size, in male dominated cultures male determines the size of family, while in
female culture number of children is more.
2.4.8 Authority difference
Difference
in authority is third measurement. It deals with the unfairness in the society.
In the opinion of Hofstede (1997) the difference in authority is “the level at
which the people are supposed to have not much influence and understand that
the rights are distributed unfairly”. (p. 28).according to Hofstede the
difference in power is taught first in families. The children are supposed to
be more respectful to their parents but have same protocol in high difference
authority societies. People must respect to their elders and that having high
position in the society is the trait of high authority difference societies.
For instance the countries like Burma
(Myanmar), Cambodia, Laos,
and Thailand,
it is the trait of their custom to respect the priest by inviting them in ceremonies,
provide high place to sit, not wear caps, dressed humbly, and speak politely
with good word in the presence of priest. The level of division of authority,
status and capital determine the difference in power of a society. In the
customs having difference in the distribution of authority the power and
control is not equally divided among all but bond to some selected persons.
These countries have limited links and they like to make more differences among
the people so that their hold remains in the society.
There is no uniqueness found in the societies where
the seniors and their assistants are treated in great difference. The salary
difference is very high from senior to juniors. Power of decision making is in
selected hands. Considering the example of high authority difference society as
the subordinates of the leader are providing especial relief and comfort. The
higher authority is like king and the workers are treated as their “faithful
subjects”. Opposite to it the societies having low difference in authority the
juniors are also involved in the process of decision making. Their superior
authority is independent. The companies that have low difference in power their
bosses are available to talk every time. USA is an example of high power
difference distance state. There was discharge of Enron and other corporate
come forward in the year 2002. Higher salaries were paid to their senior
officers’ i.e. (CEOs). The average CEO salary was 42 times as much as the
average worker, in United
States in 1980. In 1990, it was 85 times as
much. In 2000, it was increased upto531 times. Japan started to protest against
this situation, where its CEOs were getting 8 times more salary than the
workers do job in factories. The earning of top 1% after paying tax was equal
to the earning of bottom 49 million in 1977; in 1999 it was equal to the bottom
100 million. Brazil
is also one more example of a country facing same differences in power. The
poor are 50% of the habitant and get only 12% of the total income. There are
four interesting findings noted by Hofstede:
Freedom
of the country, There is less authority difference in independent countries.
Richness,
Countries having low difference of power are more prosperous and rich.
Inhabitant,
Thickly populated countries have high difference of authority.
Historical
Facts, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French are the countries with a Romance
language; their score range is medium to high same is the case with countries
having Confucian cultural back ground. They were under the influence of same
ruling power. The score of Germanic language (German, English, Dutch, Danish,
Norwegian, Swedish) countries is low. They were very “cruel” during Roman
ruling time.
2.4.9 Prevention of doubt
It
is third measurement of Hofstede’s (1980). Prevention of doubt means the degree
at which the people feel fear about any mysterious or unidentified situation in
the society. According to Hofstede this feeling arises due to extra pressure
and requirement of preventability or it require laws in written or unwritten
form (Hofstede, 1997). Strong belief and maintenance of self confidence is
required to handle these situations. If the people of a society are full of
doubt and fear then the people will be violent, energetic, required safety,
uncontrollable, touching, and lack of patience. While the people having less
uncertainty avoidance are thoughtful, calm, relaxed, having patience and can
accept risks. The students of the more preventive of doubt societies believe
that their teachers are experts and can answer any question. They used to be
punctual, try to work hard, need accuracy and laws of performing work with
perfection. In contrast to it the students who belong to low evading of fear
cultures believe that their teachers have no command on teaching and have no
ability to answer them. The workers of these societies are not hard workers,
they work hard only in need, there is no accuracy and time keeping; there is no
more rules only the essential ones. Hofstede presented two important
incorporations of prevention of ambiguity:
- Faith, Orthodox and
Roman Catholic Christian societies (except the Philippines
and Ireland)
have high scores. Eastern religions score ranges medium to very low
(except Japan).
Judaic and Muslim cultures have a tendency to score in the middle.
Protestant Christian cultures score low.
- Historical Facts,
High score of escape of doubt found in Cultures with a Romance language
and history of Roman codified laws. The people having Chinese language to
speak and Confucian tradition scores low.
2.5
Israeli Culture
Israel is an only Jewish state founded in 1948, great number
of Jew came to this state from all over the world and accommodate in this newly
developed state. These people not only belong to different nations but also
part of secular to ultra-Orthodox Judaism. Great changes occurred in this state
since it came into being. It has mixed culture having influence of Arab (both
Christian
and Muslim) and Bedouin minorities present within its borders. There is a
conflict between Israel and Palestine and still they strive for the approval of
agreement with Palestinians in the West Bank
and Gaza Strip to solve the dispute. Israel
culture is similar to US most of the immigrant came from America. One
important factor which influenced US
culture here is the strong association among America
and Israel.
This relationship and close social link provide a base for the start of
successful trade with Israel
(Nicole Hahn, 2009).
2.5.1 Characteristic of Israel culture
Independence- The basic concept of the creation of Israel is a
grouped idea of creating a jewfish homeland termed as Zionism. As the county
under goes more in the influence of western countries the independently living
thought of the society become more powerful. We can see a slight look of collectivism
also there but self dependant achievements and accomplishments based on
independent decision are more important.
Forceful attitude- It is common trait of
Israel they do not feel any need of formal attitude or rules or principles to
follow as a family where procedures and requirements are not important everyone
should follow only previously formed laws honestly, without any waste of time
that’s why Israel is treated as violent state, want immediate dictions in
business, they try to find out easy and instant results. Multi tasks- \Israel
is considered as multitask doer or polychromic because they prefer to perform
many jobs at a time and according to the importance of the job they rearrange
them (Nicole Hahn, 2009).
2.5.2 Business relation with Israel
The
geographical status of Israel
is as such that it lies at the middle of Europe, Asia and Africa.
It has strong business terms with America
and Europe and it is supposed that the influence of Israel will increased on
International business market in future. It is one of the major exporters of
cut diamond, software and farming products in Middle East.
Israel
has highly qualified, skilled professionals that give highly developed position
in market based on technological advancement in business in future. There is
some difference still present in the culture of Israel as it looks similar to other
cultures. Before starting a business in Israel it is necessary to have
complete information about its distinctive culture (Nicole
Hahn, 2009).
2.5.3 International relation with aspect to the culture of Israel
“Sharing
of the salient features of tradition like belief, thoughts, knowledge, art e.tc
between different nations and their peoples to develop common perceptive” is
called cultural diplomacy (Milton,
2003). For the management of relations between the countries people go and
visit other countries, collect information about their life style and customs.
The information based on knowledge about the language, civilization and
standard of living. Culture itself is abroad term covers great aspects of its
definition management of relationship. For example culture comprises of reading
stuff, skills, mores, ethnicity, behaviors, past, music, myth, way of
expressing emotions, and association among the people (Sztefka, 2008). In short
the transfer of information among the people of two countries about any of
these aspects in the same way as they exist in other countries is called
cultural diplomacy or management of relations.
Joseph
Nye defined management of relation in the meaning of recruitment of “soft
power” (Ross, 2002). According to Nye’s, “soft power depend on the skills to
form the choices of others” (Nye, 2004). He specify that the soft power of a
country depends on three things : its tradition…, politics…overseas rules…”It
means to make a country so strong that anyone can visit to it to understand its
customs, civilization and people and provides a base to develop relationships
among the different countries. By the management of social relations a country can
make the principles of politics and policies open to the other nations in more
desirable way. When the concept of sharing of morals and ethics develop in
culture of a country in a desirable way, the chances of the achievement of the
desired goal increased due to the mutual understanding it develops (Nye, 2004).
Management of the association is double sided communication process based on
hard work to support nation’s ideas and relations among people of other
countries also the efforts used to recognize the ideas and relations, customs
of the people of other countries. Management of foreign relation is a tool of
improving the respect of government on international level. Gifford Malone,
former Deputy Assistant and Associate Director of the United States Information
Agency (USIA) and renowned author regarding U.S. international relation and
overseas rules management said “for the achievement of good understanding about
a society and its policies, knowledge about the intensions, customs, past, and
thoughts of the people, and language of the nation we want to communicate is
must” (Wyszomirski et al.2003). There are many benefits of management of relation
programs. The cultural diplomacy program provide a platform for the
communication among the people of different countries and give good start for
the strong relationships building between the people of different countries. It
helps to promote reliability and trust. On the bases of this confidence the
government put forward new contracts on the subject of business, politics and
army (U.S. Department of State, 2005).
In
past Israel struggles to make relationship on the ground of politics and
business with the Arab countries as well as the western countries to maintain
trustful and favorable environment which supports the public opinion for
business and trade among the people of these countries.
The
task of management of international relationships can be successfully fulfilled
by the arrival of high rank members of overseas societies that are not possible
to reach as normal delegations (U.S. Department of State, 2005). The management of relationship program also
influences the people of other countries related to business and the share
holders have an opportunity to know about the trade, civilization and public of
other county. Investors have a chance of starting business in the country and
they invest in the business of the countries they liked. This course of
management of relationships also invites foreign business share holders to
involve in the successful society and trade of Israel which did not feel
comfortable to do business there as it was thought that it is an aggressive and
violent country, and it was a great risk to do business there. This concept is
also proved wrong when the foreign business share holders take interest in the
trade of Israel
through the forum of diplomacy and trade program. In 2006, American businessman
and CEO of Berkshire Hathaway, Warren Buffet, paid in Iscar Metalworking, an
Israeli-based company four billion dollars. After one year Buffet again came to
visit the company he was surprised by the tremendous success of the company and
astonished that such skilled people are present in Israel. He invites other members
also to come and use their own skills and talent in the business of Israel. It is
an interesting fact that Buffet never go to Israel
himself but he accept that “to visit Israel you have a good opportunity
to experience the amazing skills and knowledge there” (Wrobel,
2008). In this way through the management of relationships
program foreign stockholders come to know about the tremendous abilities and
power of knowledge of people of Israel
and they agreed to invest in Israel
without any fear of political complications. Also the attractive sight of
nature and appealing civilization of the country impose good effects on the
businessmen who come and visit the country and also they do not hesitate to
invest in the country because of the fear of conflicts present there.
Other
than the involvement of foreign investor on international level one more
advantage of cultural diplomacy program is that there is a chance of exposure
of international market by making links to the business associates present in
foreign countries the business can be spread over wide rang through overseas
market, without exact knowledge of foreign language, trade and about
civilization it is impossible.
After
the world wide changes there are also some requirement of being successful in
global market as international designations composed of the people of different
countries work together without any difference of their civilization and
customs over a long period of time
(Marquardt, 1998). The accomplishment of these teams formed by the
combination of people of different countries is essential while doing business
on international level.
It
is required to have complete command and knowledge about the culture of other
nations while doing business in international market. Insufficient knowledge
produce negative effect on business conducted in global market. For example
American companies have to face great lose i.e. two billion dollars each year
because of inadequate knowledge of different cultures of their workers who work
together as a team (Marquardt, 1998). There is a great opportunity provided through the
cultural development program that the people of one county introduced by the
customs and tradition of the people of other countries all over the world and
provide a base for the start of successful business in global market. It is the
main objective of Israeli economy to do business on wide range by the promotion
of business on international level. The command on the awareness of the culture
of different people is necessary to prepare team of today’s businessmen and
businesswomen and also future business experts to work in international
economics field.
One
important thing to discuss here is that the management of relations programs is
also there to target the young generation. Relationships among the young
generation of different countries are also beneficial because these young
people will become the leader of their country in future. The friendships which
develop as a result of these relations remains as good memories of life and
when a head has got a chance to visit that country he must take important
assessment about the country he visited in past. More over cultural diplomacy
programs are helpful to oppose the quarrels, confusions, unawareness and
unjustified hate that is present in the people of a country against the other
country. This advantage is very useful in case of Israel as most of the
information about the Israel we get through various media channels (Lee, 2006),
which focuses only the conflict between Israel and Palestine and in this way
concept Israel is destructive on international level. They did not talk about
the positive aspects of the Israeli culture, its beauty, prosperous society and
business ground.
These
programs are also helpful for the initiation of positive response at
international level about Israel.
People will understand the public, culture and life style of Israel in optimistic way as a result of these
cultural diplomacy programs and they realize that there are also many important
things regarding to Israel
except Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Israel progress very fast in the
field of science and technology, also its economy is well established. People
of the country are friendly, disciplined and supportive. All these positive
traits of Israeli culture are hidden because of the media but only the
management of public relation program is the platform which supports it.
Education
is another important field which is positively influenced as a result of
cultural diplomacy. The communication about the culture can be easily carried
out in teaching institutions and education. The management of relation has
become a part of education in past and still it is taught in schools. Textbooks
in secondary school and universities are also having information about the
culture, faith, and more of different countries.
In
reference of management of relationships many universities overall the world
provides an opportunity to their students to spend some time in foreign and
mingle themselves in the culture of these countries. These programs are planned
to make familiar the student to the customs and the life style of the other
countries.
For
the better understanding of culture some countries like USA have established new universities in other
countries like Egypt.
These entire things are utilized to build the spirit of patience and
consideration among the nation of the world and make familiar the young
generation of these countries in foreign. In the opinion of Jackie Eldan, Head
of Bureau and Senior Deputy Director General of the Israeli Ministry of Foreign
Affairs “ the feeling of hate must be restricted and pay attention on education
for the achievement of peaceful environment” (Eldan, 2008).
Dr. Eric Zimmerman, Academic Secretary and
Director of Research at the Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya, says student
exchange program allow overseas students to visit Israel and it increased the
multiplicity of the institute which influenced the seeking of knowledge in
positive way. He also advised that the transfer of Israeli students to foreign
universities provide them a chance to be familiar of the civilization of those
countries and also their way of communication which help them to be prepared
for their future choice of careers (Zimmermann, 2008). The field of law is another ground which enhances a
country image by the help of cultural diplomacy. A country can increase its
value among the other nation by providing information about the clean and just
legal system present in their country. For the last two years the
America-Israel Friendship League, a non-sectarian, non-political organization,
has brought twelve American judges to Israel each year for the illustration of
law and show them official information to Israel and particularly to Israeli
law. These judges study the rules of Israel legislation in deep and also
observed Israeli society in detail. Hon. Justice Carol Edmead, a New York State
Supreme Court Justice who visited the country and explains the purpose of their
visit in this way “The U.S. and Israel
both are democratic countries and they trust on the independence and authority
of people. In media we do not have any information about the life style, their
relations, their habits and customs, their thoughts also. We have this
opportunity very often. Invite more Americans to visit Israel who told their natives about Israel (America-Israel
Friendship League, 2007).
The
management of culture could be achieved by teaching country’s language to the
students rather than their mother tongue. The knowledge and command on the
language of other countries make them able to understand and interact with the
people who lived in other countries in a better way. It is important to mention
here that many countries in the world provide the facility of teaching
languages in secondary schools. Two countries in the European Union allow study
of language at primary level (Committee for Economic
Development).
Moreover
the understanding of the language of another country is a tool of management of
relationships, to show concern about the other country and its people and it
provide a base for the maintenance of close relationships. President George W.
Bush said, “Learning a language is a way of expressing feelings. It is feeling
of awareness. It is the way to communicate others. Ask someone about himself,
his way of living, and also about your feelings” (Committee
for Economic Development).
Learning
of foreign language is an essential point for the western countries to defend
their national security and it is important part of management of relations.
The United States strive for the management of relations with many Middle
Eastern states, for example because of the lack of command about the
information of culture and lack of
ability to understand the language, they face problem to talk to the leader of
country (Committee for Economic Development).
The
western countries pay emphasis more on the learning of the languages of the
other countries. More knowledge about the culture and language of antagonist
state enable them to be more communicative to these countries. Due to this fact
the Committee for Economic Development in Washington
D.C. advised that to face the
fact of present risks to the business and safety of united state, it is
required to improve the education system of united state, in order to increase
their understanding of foreign language and interaction with the cultures.
President George W. Bush also understands this fact and he admit the importance
of cultural diplomacy, especially improvement of skills of speaking foreign
languages. He said that “our dedication is required to educate our young
generation and make them able to play dynamic role over all the world, our
national security and our control depend on this fact. I invite schools,
teachers, students, parents, and the members of the society to improve
knowledge of our nations and cultures by supporting our young generation to
take part in activities that enhance their information and admiration for the
international relations, language, physical state, past, education and the
talent of other countries” (Committee for Economic
Development).
The
government of most of the countries did not like to introduce western life
style in their state, so it is difficult to represent western culture there (U.S.
Department of State, 2006). Knowledge and information about the language and
life style of Middle East countries is
essential for the western countries.
Sphere
of art is another field which helps to promote cultural diplomacy among the
nations all over the world in the recent past. For the management of
relationships countries exchange the foreign delegations to promote their
cultural values. Either they send their artists to foreign countries to perform
their talent or foreign artist anchor the international programs in their
native land. These activities promote knowledge and represent culture; it can
be a good start for the development of political and social relationships
(Szanto, 2003). This presentation of art among different countries provide an
opportunity to describe a country around the world to represent its own talent
and it also drive away negative concepts
present in the minds of people of other countries.
Interaction
among the people increases as a result of management of culture programs.
People who work in different field of occupations come close to each other and
all over the world and spirit of civil associations increased as a result of
these programs. The combine efforts among the higher management in different
countries can be productive in these fields such as medicines. As former
Secretary of State Colin Powell said, “It is necessary to overcome most of the
problems which our country is facing today like violence, round the world
environmental problem, get rid of curse of aids, we must educate our young
generation about other cultures, languages and other nations” (CED). One
example great example of the positive impact of International Corporation is
the International Space Station. It is a great achievement of mankind. The
International Space Station (ISS) is an example of combine efforts of fifteen
different countries, which upon completion will be a marvelous research
facility in space (NASA, 2007). The ISS is one of the basic examples of the
great achievement of International Corporation that result in the benefit of
mankind.
It
is a reliable fact that the members of cultural diplomacy programs are not the
representative of government but common citizens, who effort to touch heart and
soul of the worldwide countries peoples. For instance when the troop of Israeli
artists travel to France
they are not the representative of Israel government but they
represent their country, their own ideas and their own opinion. In this way the
foreign people who do not like the policies of Israel government welcome these
artists as people, and have good relationships to these people which
unconsciously build new opinion about their country.
This
program helps to promote their spirit of being a Jew in the participants. Many
return to their universities and take an active part in the Jewish community on
campus. Many registered in the curses of Jewish studies and enroll for the
sufficient trips to Israel
and also spend semester abroad in Israel. Some hope on returning from
the trip to continue their career in Jewish community or follow Jewish life in
every aspect of life (Bronfman, 2007). According to studies released by Dr. Leonard Saxe, a
professor of Jewish community research and social policy at Brandeis University,
61% of Birthright graduates, even after three year of trip said that they were
closely connected to Israel,
71% had strong feelings for Jewish people (Kantor, 2008).
2.5.4 Conclusion
After
the study of above stated facts we know many powerful and broad spectrum
benefits of diplomacy of culture and it proves that it is an effective
instrument of management of relation in Europe and the United States.
It is also observed that due to the cultural and diplomacy the opinion of
international nations changes about Israel. Side by side this
investigation through light on the fact that the government support for these
programs in Israel
is insufficient. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ miniscule budget for cultural
diplomacy stops the ministry to start or support the management of relation
program on wide range.
It
is also pointed out that the protection and the development of culture is not
fully supported or encourage by the government in terms of funds in Israel. It is
observed that many other institutes area present in the country to support or
promote Israel
culture. The diversity and uniqueness of Israel culture has shown. The
attraction of Israeli culture throughout the world is also described. In short
customs of Israel are ready
to transfer in other countries and it is an important instrument of improving
image of Israel
in worldwide countries.
It
is great misfortune of Israel
that they neglect their rapidly growing culture which is the most powerful
instrument. The severe risk of safety is not the reason of avoiding the
cultural diplomacy program. Continuous negligence of interaction proved to be
more harmful. Accomplishment in management of public relation war is real victory
of Israel.
This article describes great challenges present for the people of Israel. In this
respect diplomacy of culture is helpful to Israeli to improve its image in the
world. The world support has made Israel stronger country.
3. Methodology
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter will
discuss the most important part of research which is the methodology, this is
an important part because it will elaborate the overall flow of research and
also the whole process and working pattern of researcher is identify in this
chapter. First the methods used for collecting data or performing the research
are defined in detail then overall research steps are defined and explain in
different section. Before going in detail discussion first have a look on
initial concepts of research and its usage.
3.1.1
RESEARCH
In most of the
professions we see that research work is being carried out.
Research is basically an
approach towards thinking; a thinking which requires a critical analysis of
each and every point of your work. While doing a research work, a researcher
should have a questioning mind; he should critically analyze each and every
thing he comes across with during the research phase. For getting more
effective result out of one’s research, the effective changes should also be
incorporated. More concisely researcher do researches for finding something
different and want to come up with new things or ideas which will be accepted
and welcome by others. Although the delivery of concepts and the real message
can only be convey in a right manner if it is explained in a right phenomenon
and according to Koopman (1997) it is not a difficult task. Therefore one must also care about delivering
his thoughts or findings so that others can get researcher has found or
learned.
Research is formed as a
single word by the amalgamation of two words and that are “re” and “search”, re
over here means a repetitive task, while search is and investigative work that
one carries out with close examination and careful appraisal. The two words when
put together, they form a noun which presents established facts as a result of
long lasting scrutiny and examination. While doing a research work, the
researcher makes use scientific methods; scientific methods can include
classification, observation and interpretation of data. With the usage of these
scientific methods the researcher reaches to a knowledgeable conclusion.
If we talk about our
daily life, we come across these phases quite often, but there is difference
between daily life situation and a full-fledged research work. The difference
is of formality, verifiability, exactness and strength.
3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
The process
which basically puts down an answer to all our queries, by undergoing extensive
investigation, data collection, analysis and interpretation, is called a
research. This research work must be systematic, controlled, valid and
verifiable, systematic, empirical and critical and as far as possible (Gulnaz,
2011).
Controlled:
Control here signifies that during the research
work one comes across many factors which can affect the research results. If
the researcher is working on any two variables then he should make sure that
his work is structured in such a manner that it is minimizing the effect of the
other factors which have the potential of disturbing the relationship of the
two selected variables.
Rigorous: This point focuses on the procedures that the researcher carries
out to collect the data. The queries which he is destined to solve should have
answers which are related, suitable and defensible. The degree of exactness
varies in between social and physical science and even within social sciences.
Systematic: There should be an orderly manner in which
the research work has to be done; there should not be a haphazard approach.
Valid and verifiable: The conclusion which you drive from all
the investigative and analytical work you have carried out should be confirmed
by others and by yourself.
Empirical: the conclusion of the research should be based on evidences. All
the information that the researcher collects which is either from daily life
situations or from his observations he should have a solid evidence for the
support of each point.
Critical: A critical evaluation of all the procedures employed during the
research work is of utmost importance. The scrutiny procedure should be
perfect, thus not entertaining any kind of flaw.
The above
mentioned characteristics should always be a part of your research work
(Gulnaz, 2011).
3.3 RESEARCH ROAD MAP
By above discussion we are very mush
clear about what research is and how it is use by different people. In this
part the flow and road map of this research will be described, this research is
based on qualitative analysis as the topic is general and it will be best
describe by qualitative analysis, moreover the research will be base on case
study approach as it will help in formulating the real context of study. The
reason of using these two approaches is that the research is based on a wide
and broad topic which has a global importance and also it is based on global
scenario. For keeping on a smooth track first the secondary study will be
performed which includes a high level of thorough search as the secondary study
is the one which help in understanding the topic, all the extracted material
found in secondary study is put in literature review which is already present
in the research. The literature part shows the level of research conducted for
this study as the focus is on marketing perspective with two culture that is
why everything is considered separately and have described in great detail so
that everyone get clear about each and every concept of study. After successful
conduction of secondary study the primary study will start which is based on
present scenarios and approaches, in primary study generally the opinions of
different people is taken on which analysis is done. For successful completion
of any study the primary study is very necessary as it help in getting
firsthand knowledge of the focus topics and also help in successfully completed
the aims of study, after doing both the overall validity of research will be
judge and then in further sections the analysis will be done on base of the
findings. Analysis part includes different tools which are used for analyzing the
findings and on base of that analysis further conclusion are made.
Further the research process and
steps include in it will be discuss thoroughly so that the whole context of
research will be understood easily.
3.4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
It would not be wrong to
compare a journey with a research process, for a journey we make the following
two decisions:
1. What
are the queries which you want to be solved?
2. How
to get on with the answer?
The researcher needs to walk through a path in
order to get a fruitful result. The task here is basically the research
methodology; this path would provide the researcher with all sorts of answers
he requires.
During the research phase you will come across a
number of stages, now you have to be really careful while selecting the best
procedure that you will be applying at that particular stage. At this level
your knowledge about research methodology will play an important role (Research
Process Flowchart, 2009).
3.4.1 Steps
in Research Process
1) The research problem should be framed
2) Writing literature review
3) The
objectives should be set
4)
Research and sample design should be created
5) Data collection
6) Proper analysis of data
7) To
simplify and interpret the data
8) Interpretation of the results and conclusion
3.4.1.1 To frame the research problem
The formulation of the research problem is the
main step in the research process. Before conducting the research, it should be
clear what it to be found out. The
structure of the research problem itself defines the procedure the research
will be conducted.
There are four main Ps around which the research
in Social sciences circles around:
·
People- a crowd of individuals
·
Problems- to study the
individuals and finding out about their problems and learning their attitude towards
that problem
·
Programs- to find how fruitful is an involvement
·
Phenomenon- to establish
uniformity
Majority of the researches in real are based on
at least two Ps.
Research process has two features
1)
Study population:
·
Individual
·
Organizations,
·
Group
·
Communities
2)
Subject area:
·
Problems: issues,
circumstances, connotations, requirements, profiles
·
Program: material,
construction, conclusions, characteristics, approvals, patrons, service
providers, etc.
·
Phenomenon: cause-and-effect
relationships, study of phenomenon
One should be clear of the topic of their
interest in which the research will be conducted in the perspective of the four
Ps.
3.4.1.2 Considerations in selecting a
research problem
Following are the things that should be taken
into account to keep research process attention-grabbing throughout.
1)
Interest: Research requires
patience, hard work and consistency. So the topic chosen should be such that
keeps the interest intact.
2)
Magnitude: It is important to select a topic which is
manageable and can be completed in a given time and with the given resources.
It should be clear.
3)
Measurement of concepts: It is important to be clear about the
measurement of concepts
4)
Level of expertise: Researchers
should make sure that since all the work has to be done by him, he should be
expert in the task proposed.
5)
Relevance: The study should be relevant and
should add to the knowledge of the previous researches.
6)
Availability of data: Data
availability is one of the big issues. It should be made sure that data for the
selected topic is available.
7)
Moral issues: It is important
to find out how moral issues can be addressed and how they can affect the study
population.
3.4.1.3 Steps in formulation of a research
problem
Following are the steps
which will help in dichotomizing a subject area. Without this, there would not
be adequate level of knowledge for the study to be piloted. The steps are:
Step 1: Find out your
interest area
Step 2: Divide that are
into sub areas
Step 3: Pick the one
that is the most interesting
Step 4: Put research
questions
Step 5: Frame the
objectives
Step 6: Evaluate them
Step 7: Recheck all
Here we are discussing the topic “the research
problem”. In such researches based on social sciences the second most important
element which is considered is the study of population which comprises of
people who are the direct main source of information.
When the research process starts, the first
thing which is decided to minimize the problem is to select the study
population so that accurate information can be gathered in the response.
3.4.2 Reviewing the literature
- The first step to start reviewing your
research is to prepare yourself according to the main information available
about the related topic of research, as literacy abilities have major concern
in these types of researches (Peregoy & Boyle, 2000).
- The most essential part of the whole research
is its literature review which helps in every further planned action.
- The task of literature reviewing is sometime
time consuming, irritating but the end result is fruitful the entire process.
The useful functionality of literature review can be expressed by following
points;
a. Bring clarity and focus to your research
problem;
The literature review makes your task easy to
know the focal point of your research process and helps you to comprehend the
actual problem in the research process. Literature review facilitates you to
come to know the correlation between study population and your research
problem.
b. Improve your methodology:
The research questions can be easily answered if
the methodology you are using in the research process has been carefully
selected by you during the literature review. Once you have examined the
methodologies used by others, it would give you an overview of difficulties and
dilemma they have gone through and that will help you find the related answers
that your research questions require. On other side readers give major concern
to methodology part as they are familiar with this fact that use of right
textures and knowledge will help in building up a right level of information
which further improve the overall flow of research (Peregoy & Boyle, 2000).
c. Broaden your knowledge base in your
research area:
Before you start your research study, you are
highly expected to broaden your knowledge of the area under discussion. This
will increase the chances to improve your research process and put the related
findings in the subject area of the research.
d. Contextualize your findings:
By contextualizing your findings you are in the
position to evaluate your answers with others who have already collected
information on the topic. You will be able to assess the real dissimilarity of
information with others findings is acquired. As according to August (2003)
sometimes it become difficult to read things and extract the right level of
information because it depend on the skills which didn’t remain same all the
time hence by contextualizing you decrease this effect.
Reviewing literature process is as under:
i) search for existing literature in your area
of study;
ii) review the literature selected;
iii) develop a theoretical framework;
iv) develop a conceptual framework.
Search for existing literature:
You should make your mind for the real topic
wherein you are going to investigate for the research study and ensure the
broader information about the area that will be useful during your research and
set the standards.
- Write a bibliography of the research topic.
The sources are:
1. books
2. journals
3.4.3 The formulation of objectives
- The targets aimed before starting the research
are its objectives.
- Objectives make the reader understand what
research work you are attempting.
-Objectives must be phrased clearly and to the
point.
Objectives can be of two types:
a) main objectives (aims);
b) sub-objectives.
·
A clear statement giving a big and clear picture of the research topic is
explained in main objective. The involvement and relationship you want to
obtain can be stated as objective.
·
The sub-objectives are known as
much specified facets of the main topic that you are investigating within your
framework of study (Karni, 2000).
3.5 PREPARING THE RESEARCH DESIGN
A conceptual structure in which research is
conducted is called research design.
Research
design functionality is expected to provide you all the required relevant
information while reducing money, time and effort to the minimal level. While
developing a research design one must consider the background knowledge of
topic is successfully searched and researcher is clearly understand the
requirement of topic (Geursen and Ehrenreich, 1998).
According the requirements of a specific
research problem, the research design preparation may involve the following
steps:
1. Research
study objectives.
2. Data
Collection methods that would be used
3. Sample—Design
information sources
4. Data
collection tools
5. Analysis
of data – quantitative and qualitative
1.
Research study objectives: Research study objective
identify the questions of the research topic that have to be answered and they
must be:
a) Numbered
b) Question
statement should start with action verb
2. Data
Collection Methods: Data collection methods are of
two types:
Primary Data—data that is collected for very
first time
Secondary Data — it is the data that have been
already collected and analyzed by some other person or institute.
Methods of Primary Data Collection include;
3.5.1 OBSERVATION METHOD
Observation is
considered to be a fundamental and highly essential method in all qualitative
studies. It has been used to determine the complex relationship in natural
social surroundings. In this type of studies, in-depth interviews has been
used, the observation shows a vital role as the researcher notes because the
interviewee’s body language and her affect in addition to her words. On the
other hand, it is a method that involves in a great deal of the researcher.
Study of the behavior of
different persons is very important and basic element of conducting
investigations related to determine the nature of connection of people in a
society. Examinations are essential when
we study the interaction among the people on broad scale. The confidence of a
person is observed by sudden change in movements and way of talking is also
studied deeply while conducting an investigation. Different problem which an
investigator have to face regarding to the study related to this aspect are
uneasiness to give opinion, embarrassment to agree with the fair and principled
situation, inefficient behavior of
different person in a society, the sudden change in the attitude of different
people when the investigation is conducted on broader sale. Interpretation
depends on personal way of conducting an investigation. The researcher must
plan about the aim of the study he wanted to conduct in the initial stage and
also must be confident about the stage when his study is successfully
implemented and also provide remarks of people observed in response of
different questions asked by different people in the investigation.
Such challenges, like:
discomfort; uncomfortable ethical dilemmas and even danger; the difficulty of
managing a relatively unremarkable role; and the challenge to identify the big
picture while finely observing the huge amounts of fast-moving and complex
behavior are just a few of the challenges.
The observations comprise more than just “hanging out.” According to DeWalt NS DeWalt (2001), the
plan full and self-aware observers use the observation systematically. At the
stage of proposal, the researcher should define the reason of the observing. In
this phase of the study, in which it is possible to be most productive and the
use of field notes to reply to the research queries.
3.5.2 SURVEY METHOD
Kraemer (1991) had
identified three distinguishing characteristics of the survey research (p.
xiii). According to him, first, survey
research has been used to quantitatively define the specific characteristics of
a given population. These characteristics have been frequently involved in
investigating the relationships among the variables. Secondly, the data
essential for survey research has been collected from individuals and are,
therefore, subjective. Finally, the survey research has used a particular
portion of the population from which the conclusions can future be generalized
back to the population. In survey research, the independent and dependent
variables have been used in order to define the scope of the study, but it
could not be explicitly organized by the researcher. Before conducting the
survey, the researcher must establish a model that classifies the estimated
relationships among these variables. The survey is then built to test the
established model against the observations of the phenomena.
As compare to survey
research, a survey is basically a data gathering tool for conducting the survey
research. The surveys can also be used
to measure the requirements, estimate demand and study the affect (Salant &
Dillman, 1994). The term survey
instrument has often been used to differentiate the survey tool from the survey
research that it has been designed to support.
The surveys are capable
of collecting the information from huge samples of the population. They are
also well suitable for gathering the demographic data that define the
constitution of the sample (McIntyre, 1999).
They are also comprehensive in their types and number of variables that
can be determined, require the minimal investment to develop and administer,
and are comparatively simple for creating generalizations (Bell, 1996).
The surveys can also be the prompt evidence about attitudes that has
been difficult to quantify by using the observational procedures (McIntyre,
1999). It is essential to note that
surveys only deliver estimations for the true population, not the exact
measurements (Salant & Dillman, 1994).
3.5.3 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Gorham and Wu (1996) had suggested a method for
experimentally examining the different phase of corrections. Their method had
required to conduct a series of tests using different size projectiles. The
phase of spectra for each pulse has been analyzed and with the knowledge of how
an ideal pulse propagates. The smooth underlying phase variation common to all
curves has been determined. With the appropriate knowledge of how the phase
velocities differ over the range of frequencies, the distribution of the wave
can therefore be projected. Bacon (1998) had suggested an experimental method
for taking attenuation and dispersion in viscoelastic bars. This method had
involved by performing a test on each bar in order to examine the viscoelastic
material behavior. This method, outlined consequently, had examined the
dispersive relationship experimentally. Bacon and Brun (2000) had extended this
method for measuring the dispersive relationship to take in the bars that had
not been uniform along their lengths. When the ending points of the bars are
given a high temperature then, this technique is used. In this method
viscoelastic characteristics of the substances were evaluated by utilizing a
process of two point measurement. This study is expansion of Lundberg et al., (1990).
Another related process of evaluating the coefficient of propagation was given
by Cheng et al., (1998). For the evaluation of the quantity of phase shift
among the two pulses, in place of uncovering the phase spectra, the wave number
is calculated to obtain link between frequency and velocity.
3.6 DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN
In research methodology
conclusions about large data set is determined from a small set of samples
A sample is taken from a
large data set and it represents whole population.
Ideally, sample should
allow researcher to get behavioural estimates and assessments of large
population if the sample is good representative.
Sample design requires
three step decisions:
The needs of the research project will determine
which method is most effective
The Sample: Who would be
surveyed?
·
Researcher
must identify the type of required information at the very start and where this
information is expected to be available.
Sample Size: What number
of people would be surveyed?
·
Larger
sample sizes are expected to deliver more reliable conclusions instead of small
sample size but it is not required to sample the whole population.
Sampling: how sampling
should be conducted?
·
Sample
can be conducted with a random approach it means selecting samples randomly
from the whole population. It is known as probability sample.
·
Researcher
may select sample people from where he can get information easily. It is known
as no probability sample.
The most effective
sample method can be selected from the requirements of the research project
type.
3.7
Data Collection Tools (Research Instruments)
Data collection is the
very important aspect in the research project. The development of research
instrument for data collection has very significant importance. Any conclusion
or the finding that you give on the basis of your research entirely depends on
the quality of data you collected and queries that you asked to the
respondents. There is a well-known saying about computers- “garbage in garbage
out”- with same sense it is applicable on data collection. This research tool
provides researcher with the input of the study so the validity and quality of
the conclusions and findings are completely dependent on it.
3.7.1
The Questionnaire:
Questionnaires are commonly used in the
structured surveys and interviews.
A questionnaire is a set of questions that is
presented to the respondents to get the answers. The respondent reads and
interprets the questions and writes the answers and return the filled
questionnaire.
In interview when researcher asks questions from
questionnaire and also explains if required and record the answers from the
respondent during the interview.
Questionnaire should have very flexible and
tested very carefully before its distribution Following are types of questions:
• Open-ended
• Closed-ended
• Both may be used
1. Closed –ended Questionnaire:
-There are usually scale questions or multiple
choice questions in the closed-ended questionnaire. In the multiple choice
questions, all possible answers are written and the respondent is asked to
select among them.
-These closed-ended questions assist in doing
quantitative research through statistics.
-Since the analysis of this type of
questionnaire is quite simple, therefore, they can be distributed in bulk
because its data can be easily entered into the computer.
2. Open-ended Questionnaire:
-Like closed-ended questionnaire, open ended
questionnaire does not have options but it has an empty space after each
question to be filled by the respondent.
-Open-ended questions give an opportunity to the
respondents to respond in their own words rather than just selecting from the
given options.
-Since there are no options, therefore analyzing
the data is quite complicated.\
- As respondents respond in their own words so
only few questionnaires need to be circulated.
-Closed ended questions can tell the number of
people who are using the service where as open –ended questions can tell how
people view about the service.
3. Combination of both:
A questionnaire which contains both closed-ended
as well as open-ended questions can easily determine the number of people using
the service and what are their perceptions about the service.
Usually a questionnaire which is a combination
of both begins with closed-ended questions and ends up with open-ended questions.
3.8 COLLECTING DATA:
Data collection is a step by step process in
which a problem is recognized firstly and then a study design is developed.
After that research instrument is constructed and sample is chosen. After going through all these steps data
collection is started. Data can be collected through many ways that is by
interviews, observations, questionnaires or experiments but in each of these
methods some ethical issues are involved.
-People who are studied by a researcher or from
whom data is gathered become the study participants.
-A person who gathers information for any
particular purpose is called a researcher.
a) Ethical issues related to the participants of
the research: Many ethical issues, related to the participants of a research
are involved while conducting a research.
i) Gathering information:
The purpose of doing any sort of research is to
provide benefit to the society. If pressure is exerted upon the respondent to
participate in the research, it will be unethical. Before asking questions or
conducting any research activity, getting permission from the respondents is
very essential. Besides this, justifying the relevance of the research is also
important, otherwise respondent’s time will be wasted and this is also
unethical.
ii) Seeking consent:
It is a very important ethical issue that
respondents must be told about the research before involving them in any
research activity. They should be aware about the purpose of the research,
where its data will be visible, how will they participate and how it will
influence them as well as the society. It is essential that respondents should
not be pressurized and their consent must be intended. Getting information
without informed consent and willingness of the respondent is considered unethical.
iii) Providing incentives:
Although many people do not contribute only due
to the incentives but due to the significance of the study and its impact on
the society but it is ethical to thank the respondents in a way by giving them
incentives at the end of the study. It is because they have given their
valuable time to it but giving incentives before gathering data is not ethical.
iv) Collection of Secured Information:
There lies a great responsibility upon the
researcher while collecting data about confidential information. For example,
to collect data about someone’s personal life like his attitude towards the use
of drugs, earnings and marital status. He should take great care while
collecting information about these issues. However, in ethical research of
material it is often advised to inform the participant about the research
questions and considerable time frame is given to the participants. It is only
to avoid any kind of inconvenience during the time of research or collecting
secured and confidential information. The desire of researcher is to collect
more accurate information without disturbing the participants.
v) Security of Participants
Another
important consideration in ethical research of data is to the security of all
participants of the research. Therefore, it is required to do all the possible
measures to secure participants from the harm or distress of the procedures
used in collecting information. The research that includes damage to the
participants like, dehumanization process or intrusion to privacy should be
stopped. In another situation, the researcher should try to minimize the
harmful effect of research processes to the participants. He should avoid
procedures that cause distress or fretfulness among participants of research.
These measures will help the researcher to collect accurate ant in time
information.
vi) Confidentiality of information
It is the ethics of the research to maintain
secrecy of the information provided by the participants. Thus, it is suggested
to keep the participants’ information secret even at the time of searching
groups for collecting information related to study. The responsibility of
researcher is to keep the responses and the sources of responses unidentified.
It will help to maintain the security of information collected.
b) Ethical issues relating to the researcher;
i) Avoiding bias:
It is unethical for the researcher to manipulate
the facts of findings. It is found that researcher modulate the information
according to their aptitude irrespective of the facts related to that
information.
ii) Provision or deprivation of a treatment:
A researcher may face the problem in handling
research due to lack of or surplus availability of resources. Similar is the
case when a researcher is involved in the research of unsupported ideas and he
is not in a position to confirm the effectiveness of those ideas without
performing experiments on these ideas. These problems can hinder the research
progress. However, the awareness of the research related issues, the risk involved
with that research and the informal dialogue between the researcher and
participants may help the researcher to resolve problems of such researches.
iii) Using inappropriate research methodology:
It is responsibility of the researcher to select
appropriate study sample, appropriate procedures, tools and techniques and
always remain indifferent to the result of the research.
iv) Incorrect reporting:
To manipulate the information collected from
research according to one’s consent is against the ethics of research.
v) Inappropriate use of the information:
The use of information against the consent of
participant is unethical. If researcher has to be aware of any of such dilemma
he should adopt measure to protect information provided by the participant.
Certain type of researches can harm the benefits
of individuals like restructuring of an organization. Organization
restructuring may be beneficial for an organization but can be harmful to a
section of employee.
Can researcher include endangered participants
in research study?
The researcher can include these respondents in
his study group but after informing them about the possible use of information
and the effect of that information on their fate. It is preferred attitude in
ethical research.
3.9
PROCESSING AND ANALYSING DATA
Numbers of operations are involved in processing
and analyzing of data. These operations help in extraction of related
information and to develop a framework in accordance to the response of
participants.
The Data Processing operations are:
1. Editing – the ability to delete or add some
information or data in the information or data collected from participants.
2. Classification – data is arranged in
particular class on the basis of common characteristics according the process
of collecting information.
Classification according to characteristics:
Data can be categorized on the basis of common features like:
: Descriptive like literacy, sex and religion
: Numerical like weight, height and, income
3.9.1
Data Analysis Methods used in Research
3.9.1.1
Qualitative Data Analysis
Qualitative data gathering technique is very
delicate which encapsulated with inflexible rules and procedures. However,
researchers can collect information under this technique by using content
analysis which will help the researcher to collect information from the
responses of the participants.
The reviews of published articles in criminology
and justice show that the less than 11% of the articles written by the top
ranked journals support the qualitative research methods (Buckler, in press;
Tewksbury, DeMichele and Miller, 2005), and less than 15% of the articles
written by not so popular journalists in criminal justice develop and document
results obtained through qualitative method (Buckler, in press; Tewksbury,
DeMichele and Miller, 2005).
Worrall (2000) stated that one reason regarding
quantitative approach is that it is extensively sensitive and follow the rule
“consisting of extrapolating methods and investigating features, but in fact,
quantitative research method is capable to generate and operate on precise
predictions which considers a best method.”
No doubt, the statement stated by
Worrall and other scholars is the evidence that they have to work on
predictions and suppositions in quantitative research method. A researcher can
evaluate previous activities and past events with the studies of the
surrounding public context and make the forecast of the coming events by
looking over the configurations and prediction of the analysts and it does not
require any statistical analysis. We all estimate and calculate our outcome in
the context of predictions and interactional system, and entangled our every
day. However, it would be the argument of Worrall and others like it that we
need to specify strong points of connections so as to know “how likely”
elements are to be expected perfectly. That is how our prediction can be
evaluated against the real outcome. It is the only way of reaching such
objective. After all, we do not have a better method for reaching such a goal.
One of the two primary research methodologies of
conducting research on social science problems like criminal justice and
criminology is qualitative research. The major feature of this research method
is the understanding of the collected information from the studies of crime,
criminals and justice system operations in an easy and more accurate way.
It would not be wrong to
say that the qualitative research method provides results that are more
comprehensive and useful for the researcher than that of those which we get
from the quantitative research. The reasons behind the difference of the
outcome in these research methods are the types of data obtained, the method of
collecting data, and the type of result analyzed and the final interpretation of
the outcome.
In criminology and
criminal justice scholars, the least favorable research methodology is
qualitative research method. If we look at the published scholarships, scholars
do not concern to this research method for their thesis.
3.9.1.2
Case Study Approach
The study carried out is an approximation to the
study that aids investigation of an occurrence inside its framework utilizing
range of data sources. This displays that the problem is not sorted out by one
lens, but with a number of lenses which permits for many aspects of the process
to be showed and grasped. The root cause of case study is to make certain that
the interest of subject is found well, and the quintessence of the method is
unwrapped, but the phenomenon that are utilized are too much dissimilar and
needs discussion, whereas many the long treatment of case study phenomenon are
illustrated by Hancock and Algozzine’s (2006), on other hand both (1995) and
Yin (2003) favoring and leaning towards constructive models for the resolution of
the case study. They claim that it claims half truth and solely dependent on
pure individual perspectives. This model “accepts the importance of the
subjects that are brain child of human mind; however, does not rule out some
sort of objectivity out there. Although these pieces of writings help the
researcher claim better insight from the audience by asking their individual
view and preferred actions. So, does this make the case study approach more
lucrative for adopting?
Looking at literature of Yin (2003), we find
that the he argues in favor of the case study module where (a) the objective of
the case is to find logics and reasons behind certain actions described in the
case (b) participants are independent in their expression of views and behavior
towards the project (c) contextual conditions are also covered because of their
integration with the problem/solution of the study or (d) there is no clearer
distinction between context and content.
For example, a study was conducted by Baxter
(2006) on the decision making power of the nursing student. It is illustrated
in his research about the factors which can affect the decision of the nursing
students and the types of decision which they made. For the purpose of
conducting studies on the decision power of the nursing students, a case was
selected but it could not be preceded without the information of the studied
group background contexts, their school of nursing and their classroom and
clinical setup. There are the main factors that can develop the skills of
decision power in themselves. It is very difficult for any author to come to
the authentic conclusion without taking the background context of these
individuals.
3.9.1.3 Interviews
There should be
listening abilities, questioning abilities, and good questioning for giving
details, in an Interviewer. Also the interviewer must be capable at personal
dealings. A large number of data collections could be done during interviewing
but that would take a lot of time to analyze. The core problem while interviewing
is the data quality. When in-depth interviews are being conducted by the
association as the only way of collecting data, she should reveal the
conceptual framework which gives the cause of the study to unwrap and explain
the viewpoints of participants on events. The interview statistics could be
triangulate with the figures collected by using other techniques by the
research having objectivist supposition. If we glimpse the interview, it looks
like too much natural discussion, the beneficiary sometimes take it as
deliberation less, in an imaginative manner, that the interviewee is giving non
problematic window on social certainty or psychological certainty (Wengraf,
2001).
In-Depth Interviewing
In-depth interviewing is
preferred by many of the eminent researchers. In order to differentiate the
qualitative interview from, like, interview of television talk-show or
interview of a journalist, we could talk about its breadth in place of its
depth (Wengraf, 2001).The interview styles differ in terms of the direction of
the question response by the interviewee. Patton (2002, pp. 341–347) gave three
types of interview categories:
-the comfortable,
conversational interview
-the general interview
guide method
-the standardized,
open-ended interview
Qualitative, in-depth
interviews fall under the category of conversational interviews having
preordained comeback. In order to help the interviewee’s views, the beneficiary
provides some of the general topics. But other than these topics, the response
of the interviewee matters. This process depends on an essential postulation to
qualitative study: The interviewee’s viewpoint on the occurrence of interest
show reveals the as the interviewee analyze it, not like the researcher analyze
it. A system for questioning should be essentially setup, for instance, when
the interviewee is being interviewed, or at the time of evaluating and
elucidation point when the researcher is determining in persistent and well
thought-out questions.
3.9.1.4
Quantitative Data Analysis
This process is used to collect information from
proper structured and controlled surveys by the help of well described
questionnaires. Researchers can collect information by manual work or by the
use of automated techniques.
Researchers, who rely on the
application of sensible positivism or quantitative research methodology, must
implement experimental techniques and quantitative actions to analyze any
subjected hypothesis on generality (Hoepfl, 1997). Moreover, for them, these
research methods also highlight the statistical measure and research of causal
connections between different factors (Denzin and Lincoln subsequently, 1998).
If we talk about quantitative
research methodology, its target is solely on examining the durability and
determination of connections between results of the undertakings. Researchers
concern to the quantitative research because this methodology depends on the
methods that fully evaluate the factors and give the full opportunity of the
description of the others studied factors. This feature is not different from
the property of the qualitative research methodology. However, in the
quantitative researchers, it is very important to know the required parameters
of the variables which are being used in the research. These researchers rely
on the collection of the required data and get result from it and finally
conclude to any outcome. It is because of the qualitative research which helps
the researchers to explain their principles and identify its significance. This
research method determines and precise each and every factors in a considerable
way. This action is beyond the limit of any perspective of the lifestyle and
establishing of the behavior of the studied population. The difference in
collecting the data between qualitative and quantitative research methodology
is that the former one depends on the principles which are depending upon the
surrounding context of the studied group; on the other side, the later one
depends on the meaningful concepts and logical principles.
Furthermore, it should also be
recognized that the quantitative research may supplement the qualitative
research and help it to understand the studied group or individuals. The
quantitative investigation helps to promote the concepts arises in qualitative
analysis and increased information about any topic. By doing this the
information which we have is evaluated by the two different methods and on the
base of the data collected with the aid of different questions and other
things, enable us to progress our
study in advanced way and it provide
more information in comprehensive way about any topic.
According to the Pearce (2002), in
creating theoretical principles, a survey method which includes interviewing
and observing the subject or studied group, may very helpful.
According to the Winter (2000), a
quantitative researcher has the benefit to fragment and delimit phenomena the
information or data into considerable and common categories that can be
utilized to all of the research studies and other similar situations. In this
way, an applied research method by the researcher can be benefited of the
"use of consistent actions so that the different viewpoints and encounters
of people can be fit into a small variety of pre-specified reaction categories
to which some numerical values are assigned" (Patton, 2002, p.14). For
instance, a quantitative specialist may get the information related to the
studied group by listing out the behavior of the individual and rank it by
observation. It would be a device to collect data from the individual for the
accurate research outcomes. So, to make this research more beneficial, the
researcher needs to develop a device which is used to keep the consistency and
standard of the studies according to pre-specified techniques. However, here
the question arises that either the measuring of this device is synchronized
with the purpose of this research or not.
3.10 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF
CONDUCTING RESEARCH
This research is based on a general
topic as mention earlier all the methods discuss above area part of study but
their uses will be described in this part. First thing that is to be consider
while researching for anything is observing the things with different angles,
same as did here before collecting data proper planning is done which include
the major part of observation, different sources their reliability and
acceptability are judge and then data is taken from there. As marketing is
normal topic so there is vast amount of information available on it and
specially on this side more consideration is given as data is only gather from
most appropriate source and everything include in study is linked to the aim
and objectives of study. Another thing which is given importance is that while
using qualitative tools quantitative tools are also used which further provide
help in strengthen the research.
For doing so first
investigation done is based on the statistical calculation of different factors
and their relation. Another important point is that the information is
collected by different groups of peoples and it is one sided opinion. Then a
part of this analysis of public point of view is used to show the overall
publics opinion. There are two different types of variables used to access the
extent of investigation. Dependent and independent variable are two different
types of variables which cannot be influenced by the investigator. It is
essential to make complete plan of analysis which determines the relationship
among the different variables before performing it practically and afterwards
this plan will be tested by the information collected among the people during
the field work. The assessment tools are used to conduct an investigation
according to the previously mentioned series.
Before going to
quantitative part first qualitative part is completed, in qualitative part we
also used set of tools in which first one is interviews as detail description
of interviews has been given in above discuss material here the use of it will be describe.
For the
investigation purpose by using interviews, researcher must have command on
communication and interaction to others and have good hearing power to listen
the ideas of the people with full attention to develop good relationships. Time
limitation is also important in this aspect to consider, maximum information is
collected in limited time. Then from the overall discussion selected
information is sorted out according to the requirement of study. Basically these discussions are based on one
sided opinion of the individual and the interviewer tries to find out the view
point of different individuals. The data collected through these interviews is
than compared to the information collected through other techniques. Wide
spectrum communication and detailed discussion on various topics are most
probably used in different studies by the people based on the nature of various
methods used. Generally when we talk about the interviews, they are most
probably based on qualitative methods as we discusses earlier, the nature of
interviews are not depended on the intensity of the any program like any talk-
show or of interview of any journalist, it is only depend on researcher how he
use them and what he perceive that how much he can find out by interviewing
different group of people. Time duration of any discussion depends on the
response of the candidate in conversation.
In this
research interviews are given major importance, interviews of such person are
taken which are linked to the theme of study like some are in marketing side,
some are on sales side, some are cultural administrator, some are linked to
cultural research and also have good knowledge of marketing criteria’s, etc.
After taking proper timings from them interviews was conducted which help
researcher in finding out the real and practical knowledge of marketing with
reference of different cultures. Some new points are also come in front which
wile b further analysis in nest chapters and then final conclusion or
assessment will be made. Interviews are part of qualitative analysis that is
why the previously planned official discussions are classified as the
qualitative detailed interviews. In these discussions the investigators use
some common topics to understand the opinion of the candidates) they mainly
concentrate on the behavior of the participant against different questions
asked them. This procedure based on supposed elements of qualitative
investigation. The opinion of the candidate is termed as the emic point of
view) and the investigator’s opinion is termed as etic point of view). In
detailed interviews or in the situation of multiple interrogations or in the
examination and elucidation period where researchers determined the result on
the bases of more determined strategy the level of arrangement of the questions
must concern. Further and more concentration will be given in analysis part of
the study.
Qualitative
part of research;
Community based disciplines of investigation is
also carried out with the help of qualitative research, It is one of the two
basics methods of performing effective study of unlawful acts and the behavior
of the criminals and also the study of
laws related to crimes. The qualitative means of investigation is
carried out with the help of separate statistical investigations of social
science related to the criminals and the law of justice operational system. The
data collected on the basis of this qualitative analysis is more helpful to
show the facts because the information is collected at multiple sites,
different procedures of investigation makes us able to understand our topic of
study in comprehensive way as compare to the information gathered on the bases
of quantitative studies. Many learned people of criminal sciences and justice
did not find qualitative study as an effective tool of investigation but it is
the fact that qualitative study is an extraordinary method of published
research material. In this research the use of qualitative analysis is done
while making it sure that the objectives and context of study can be easily
understood by others and the study will be conducted in a right manner with
proper direction.
For qualitative investigations the data is
collected from different sources to make it possible that the facts are
gathered at various sites and from different peoples. In this way the study of
facts based on multiple resources not only the single person’s opinion. More over the information regarding any
investigated topic is authentic and complete in all references. The process of
investigation of different situations makes the topic more reliable and the
observable fact of each discussion based on different methods of communication.
This is done to make study more concise and near to reality which can be name
as case study approach. The pattern of case study help in giving a thorough
sketch of full idea covered in the research and also this pattern of research
is helpful to give better understanding of the opinion of candidates, their
reactions towards any situation and they openly describes their own
feelings. This study is not only related
to the decision making of nursing students other factors behind the
investigation is also important like the location of nursing institution, class
rooms and the other infrastructure of the building. The back ground of the
schools influenced their power of decision making because it develop and
promotes their abilities of correct planning.
Quantitative part of research;
The objective behind using quantitative analysis
is to make sure that data gathered and used are part of real world and also the
verification of the power and determination of the association of different
factors is greatly emphasized by the quantitative research. This analysis help
in giving research different context and scale. It shows the exact relationship
of two or more than two changeable factors or ideas closely related to each
other, some time it focused only limited ideas, variables and matters. The
procedures of conducting quantitative research and the way of selecting
different variables, also the opinion of the researcher to add certain things
in the description of the variable is important for the quantitative research.
It is just like the qualitative research, this can be verified as the
individual who works on the quantitative investigation of different cases must
have complete information about the limitation of the use of different
variables before starting their study and for that qualitative study is used
which is already perform in our case. The investigators who used qualitative
method of study find out the extent and approach of the ideas, they gathered
information about different variables and try to describe them. Through the
qualitative study of different variables the depth of perceptions are
recognized. In quantitative
investigations the researchers are supposed to explain each and every variable
in precise way and it does not related to the background, attitude and the life
style of the groups of the people and individuals. Perception is important and
it is dependent in qualitative research work while in quantitative study each
and every aspect is calculated and explained in best way.
After above discussion the use of quantitative
approach is justified, in this research different individuals are asked about
various aspects so that the study can cover up all the related objectives. For
performing quantitative study use of surveys help a lot as individuals can
easily give relevant data about the topic through surveys and its is also easy
for researcher to get maximum information from individuals by taking little
time of them. That is why it is done here, for making this study more related
to qualitative approach the quantitative
investigation procedures are conducted in small portions and it restricted the
observable facts in certain limits. The use of trial methods which were
presented by comprises of the application of specific procedures to classify
different opinion and skills of people in previously defined categories
according to their allotted numbers by the use of standardized means of
calculation, help in fulfilling the main aim of study. For instance a
researcher whose study based on quantitative investigation make a list of
attitudes which were observed and they were classified in previously defined
categories which were measured or numbered, they work as a tool of research. So
the investigator who performs on the bases of quantitative method required to
make a tool and work according to the predefined practice and procedures. There
is certain confusion in the calculation of the facts.
That is why research is more
dependent on qualitative side rather than quantitative side but the use of it
will more strengthen the main objectivity of research.
3.11
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF RESEARCH
“Reliability and validity are tools of an essentially
positivist epistemology.” (Winter, 2002,
p. 7)
Reliability is defined by Joppe (2000) as:
… The reliability of any studies is defined by
the extent of the accuracy of the outcome or result over the time and the
representation of the subjected population in the overall result of the study.
Moreover, if the result is consistent with its accuracy, then this research
methodology is considered to be the reliable research method. (P. 1)
The
positivist which is the systematic theory of the validity is the traditional
criteria of the validity. Within
the positivist language, validity lived amongst, and was the result and
culmination of other scientific conceptions like worldwide regulations, proof
and evidence of the result, truth, goals and objectives, accuracy, reduction,
reason, fact and mathematical approach are few of them (Winter, 2000).
What is the
significance of the validity in the quantitative research is defined by the
Joppe (2000) in the following explanation:
Validity of any research method
determines the accuracy of the results and the link with the intention of the
researcher and the outcome of the whole research. You can say that it tells us
the significance of the result with the purpose of the studies itself. A
researcher measures the validity of undertaking studies by asking a series of questions
to the sample and compares the answers with the work done by others. (p. 1)
The soundness and reliability of
research in real can be judged by the tools and methods used for collecting and
analyzing data. The criteria of a system
which accept those things which are seen or proven provide a base of soundness
of the structure. In this way strength of a system depend on positive attitude.
For making it possible the use of both qualitative and quantitative analysis is
done so that the reliability can be made fortify. Soundness and strength of the
facts depends on final outcomes and incorporated effect of other ideas like
facts, reality, proofs, justice, independence, judgment, motives and the
statistical information and the validity is a cumulative result of all these.
The use of all these tactics will increase the validity of research that is why
researcher makes full use of them. The level of the
accuracy of the results termed as consistency of the investigation. It evaluate
that weather the study was conducted on requires measures. The method of the
research applied is appropriate to achieve the desired outcomes. The
investigator find out the consistency by asking different questions and
evaluate them through the answers of previous study.
This study is also done by
considering all the above issues and aspects and after evaluating and verifying
the use of tools and methods it is verified that the results which will be
obtained by use of these tools are all valid and have factual reasons which can
be verified by any one.
